Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) does not rely on the prime factorization problem. Instead, ECC is based on the mathematical difficulty of solving elliptic curve discrete logarithm problems.

RSA relies directly on the difficulty of factoring large prime numbers. GPG and PGP are encryption tools and standards that may use RSA or other algorithms internally.

ECC provides equivalent security with much smaller key sizes, making it efficient for mobile devices, embedded systems, and environments with limited processing power.

Modern security standards increasingly recommend ECC due to its performance and strong security properties.

DR planning includes technical controls, operational checklists, and security solutions to support recovery of IT systems after a disruption.

Common IRT models includededicated,leveraged, andhybridteams. In these models, response capabilities exist within the organization. While organizations mayusethird-party assistance, a fullyoutsourcedIRT is generally not considered a core internal IRT model because incident response requires immediate organizational authority, access, and accountability.

The post-incident phase focuses on documenting lessons learned, improving controls, and preventing recurrence.

Non-repudiationensures that a party involved in a transaction cannot later deny having performed an action, such as sending a message or authorizing a payment. This is a critical security property in digital communications and e-commerce environments.

Non-repudiation is typically achieved throughdigital signatures, cryptographic hashing, timestamps, and public key infrastructure (PKI). These mechanisms provide proof of origin and integrity, allowing actions to be traced back to the responsible party.

Authentication verifies identity, identification claims who a user is, and verification confirms correctness—but none of these alone prevent denial after the fact. Only non-repudiation provides legally and technically enforceable proof.

A ping flood attack exploits the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which operates atOSI Layer 3 (Network Layer). The attacker overwhelms a target system by sending a large volume of ICMP Echo Request (ping) packets, consuming bandwidth and processing resources.

Because ICMP is used for network diagnostics and error reporting, excessive ICMP traffic can prevent legitimate network communication, leading to a denial-of-service condition. Since IP and ICMP are Layer 3 protocols, ping flood attacks directly impact the network layer.

These areType 1 (bare-metal) hypervisors, running directly on hardware without a host operating system, offering higher performance and security.

Preparation is the foundational phase of incident response. It defines policies, roles, responsibilities, tools, training, and communication procedures. Without preparation, all other phases become chaotic and ineffective.

NIST SP 800-61 emphasizes preparation as the first phase because it ensures responders understand escalation paths, legal considerations, evidence handling, and authority. A new security engineer must understand preparation to operate effectively during real incidents.

Internet of Things (IoT)devices include embedded systems such as sensors, smart appliances, cameras, and industrial controllers that connect to networks and exchange data. These devices often have limited security controls and are common attack targets, making them a significant cybersecurity concern.

MAC enforces centrally managed access controls. Users and data owners cannot modify permissions.