The data scientist should obtain a correlated equilibrium policy by formulating this problem as a multi-agent reinforcement learning problem. This is because:

Multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) is a subfield of reinforcement learning that deals with learning and coordination of multiple agents that interact with each other and the environment 1. MARL can be applied to problems that involve distributed decision making, such as traffic signal control, where each traffic light can be modeled as an agent that observes the traffic state and chooses an action (e.g., changing the signal phase) to optimize a reward function (e.g., minimizing the delay or congestion) 2.

A correlated equilibrium is a solution concept in game theory that generalizes the notion of Nash equilibrium. It is a probability distribution over the joint actions of the agents that satisfies the following condition: no agent can improve its expected payoff by deviating from the distribution, given that it knows the distribution and the actions of the other agents 3. A correlated equilibrium can capture the correlation among the agents’ actions, which is useful for modeling the traffic behavior at each light that is subject to a small stochastic error term.

A correlated equilibrium policy is a policy that induces a correlated equilibrium in a MARL setting. It can be obtained by using various methods, such as policy gradient, actor-critic, or Q-learning algorithms, that can learn from the feedback of the environment and the communication among the agents 4. A correlated equilibrium policy can achieve a better performance than a Nash equilibrium policy, which assumes that the agents act independently and ignore the correlation among their actions 5.

Therefore, by obtaining a correlated equilibrium policy by formulating this problem as a MARL problem, the data scientist can most effectively model the traffic behavior and reduce congestion.

Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning

Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Traffic Signal Control: A Survey

Correlated Equilibrium

Multi-Agent Actor-Critic for Mixed Cooperative-Competitive Environments

Correlated Q-Learning

In a classification model, features with significantly larger scales can dominate the model training process, leading to poor performance. Normalization scales the values of continuous features to a uniform range, such as [0, 1], which prevents large-value features from disproportionately influencing the model. This is particularly beneficial for algorithms sensitive to the scale of input data, such as neural networks or distance-based algorithms.

Given that the problematic features are informative and representative of the target distribution, removing or bootstrapping these features is not advisable. Normalization will bring all features to a similar scale and improve the model's inference accuracy without losing important information.

 To configure the notebook instance placement to meet the requirements, the Data Science team should associate the Amazon SageMaker notebook with a private subnet in a VPC. A VPC is a virtual network that is logically isolated from other networks in AWS. A private subnet is a subnet that has no internet gateway attached to it, and therefore cannot communicate with the internet. By placing the notebook instance in a private subnet, the team can ensure that it stays within a secured VPC with no internet access.

However, to access data stored in Amazon S3 buckets and other AWS services, the team needs to ensure that the VPC has S3 VPC endpoints and Amazon SageMaker VPC endpoints attached to it. A VPC endpoint is a gateway that enables private connections between the VPC and supported AWS services. A VPC endpoint does not require an internet gateway, a NAT device, or a VPN connection, and ensures that the traffic between the VPC and the AWS service does not leave the AWS network. By using VPC endpoints, the team can access Amazon S3 and Amazon SageMaker from the notebook instance without compromising data privacy or security.

What Is Amazon VPC? - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Subnet Routing - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

VPC Endpoints - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

The best solution for this scenario is to perform forecasting by using claim IDs and dates to identify the expected number of claims in each outcome category every month. This solution has the following advantages:

It leverages the historical data of claim outcomes and dates to capture the temporal patterns and trends of the claims in each category1.

It does not require the claim contents or any other features to make predictions, which simplifies the data preparation and reduces the impact of missing or incomplete data2.

It can handle the high cardinality of the outcome categories, as forecasting models can output multiple values for each time point3.

It can provide predictions for several months in advance, which is useful for planning and budgeting purposes4.

The other solutions have the following drawbacks:

A: Performing classification every month by using supervised learning of the 200 outcome categories based on claim contents is not suitable, because it assumes that the claim contents are available and complete for all the records, which is not the case in this scenario2. Moreover, classification models usually output a single label for each input, which is not adequate for predicting the number of claims in each category3. Additionally, classification models do not account for the temporal aspect of the data, which is important for forecasting1.

B: Performing reinforcement learning by using claim IDs and dates and instructing the insurance agents who submit the claim records to estimate the expected number of claims in each outcome category every month is not feasible, because it requires a feedback loop between the model and the agents, which might not be available or reliable in this scenario5. Furthermore, reinforcement learning is more suitable for sequential decision making problems, where the model learns from its actions and rewards, rather than forecasting problems, where the model learns from historical data and outputs future values6.

D: Performing classification by using supervised learning of the outcome categories for which partial information on claim contents is provided and performing forecasting by using claim IDs and dates for all other outcome categories is not optimal, because it combines two different methods that might not be consistent or compatible with each other7. Also, this solution suffers from the same limitations as solution A, such as the dependency on claim contents, the inability to handle multiple outputs, and the ignorance of temporal patterns123.

1: Time Series Forecasting - Amazon SageMaker

2: Handling Missing Data for Machine Learning | AWS Machine Learning Blog

3: Forecasting vs Classification: What’s the Difference? | DataRobot

4: Amazon Forecast – Time Series Forecasting Made Easy | AWS News Blog

5: Reinforcement Learning - Amazon SageMaker

6: What is Reinforcement Learning? The Complete Guide | Edureka

7: Combining Machine Learning Models | by Will Koehrsen | Towards Data Science

Amazon Transcribe, Amazon Translate, and Amazon Comprehend are the most efficient combination of services to accomplish the task of sentiment analysis on a video clip with audio in Spanish. Amazon Transcribe is a service that can convert speech to text using deep learning. Amazon Transcribe can transcribe audio from various sources, such as video files, audio files, or streaming audio. Amazon Transcribe can also recognize multiple speakers, different languages, accents, dialects, and custom vocabularies. In this case, Amazon Transcribe can transcribe the audio from the video clip in Spanish to text in Spanish1 Amazon Translate is a service that can translate text from one language to another using neural machine translation. Amazon Translate can translate text from various sources, such as documents, web pages, chat messages, etc. Amazon Translate can also support multiple languages, domains, and styles. In this case, Amazon Translate can translate the text from Spanish to English2 Amazon Comprehend is a service that can analyze and derive insights from text using natural language processing. Amazon Comprehend can perform various tasks, such as sentiment analysis, entity recognition, key phrase extraction, topic modeling, etc. Amazon Comprehend can also support multiple languages and domains. In this case, Amazon Comprehend can perform sentiment analysis on the text in English and determine whether the feedback is positive, negative, neutral, or mixed3

The other options are not valid or efficient for accomplishing the task of sentiment analysis on a video clip with audio in Spanish. Amazon Comprehend, Amazon SageMaker seq2seq, and Amazon SageMaker Neural Topic Model (NTM) are not a good combination, as they do not include a service that can transcribe speech to text, which is a necessary step for processing the audio from the video clip. Amazon Comprehend, Amazon Translate, and Amazon SageMaker BlazingText are not a good combination, as they do not include a service that can perform sentiment analysis, which is the main goal of the task. Amazon SageMaker BlazingText is a service that can train and deploy text classification and word embedding models using deep learning. Amazon SageMaker BlazingText can perform tasks such as text classification, named entity recognition, part-of-speech tagging, etc., but not sentiment analysis4

The best solution for this scenario is to use a multi-model endpoint in Amazon SageMaker, which allows hosting multiple models on the same endpoint and invoking them dynamically at runtime. This way, the company can reduce the operational overhead of managing multiple EC2 instances and model servers, and leverage the scalability, security, and performance of SageMaker hosting services. By using a multi-model endpoint, the company can also save on hosting costs by improving endpoint utilization and paying only for the models that are loaded in memory and the API calls that are made. To use a multi-model endpoint, the company needs to prepare a Docker container based on the open-source multi-model server, which is a framework-agnostic library that supports loading and serving multiple models from Amazon S3. The company can then create a multi-model endpoint in SageMaker, pointing to the S3 bucket containing all the models, and invoke the endpoint from the web client at runtime, specifying the TargetModel parameter according to the city of each request. This solution also enables the company to add or remove models from the S3 bucket without redeploying the endpoint, and to use different versions of the same model for different cities if needed. References:

Use Docker containers to build models

Host multiple models in one container behind one endpoint

Multi-model endpoints using Scikit Learn

Multi-model endpoints using XGBoost

AWS Glue DataBrew provides a no-code data preparation interface that enables business analysts to clean and transform data from various sources, including PostgreSQL databases, without needing programming skills. Amazon SageMaker Canvas offers a no-code interface for machine learning model training and predictions, allowing users to predict future production volume without coding expertise.

This solution meets the requirements efficiently by providing end-to-end data preparation and prediction modeling without requiring coding.

One-hot encoding is a technique that can be used to convert a categorical variable, such as the Day-Of_Week column, to binary values. One-hot encoding creates a new binary column for each unique value in the original column, and assigns a value of 1 to the column that corresponds to the value in the original column, and 0 to the rest. For example, if the original column has values Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, one-hot encoding will create seven new columns, each representing one day of the week. If the value in the original column is Tuesday, then the column for Tuesday will have a value of 1, and the other columns will have a value of 0. One-hot encoding can help improve the performance of machine learning models, as it eliminates the ordinal relationship between the values and creates a more informative and sparse representation of the data.

One-Hot Encoding - Amazon SageMaker

One-Hot Encoding: A Simple Guide for Beginners | by Jana Schmidt …

One-Hot Encoding in Machine Learning | by Nishant Malik | Towards …

Amazon Kinesis Video Streams is designed specifically for video ingestion, storage, and live playback, with support for indexing and integration with other analytics tools.

“Amazon Kinesis Video Streams enables you to securely stream video from connected devices to AWS for analytics, machine learning (ML), and other processing. Kinesis Video Streams also supports HLS (HTTP Live Streaming) so users can view video streams in real time.”

This meets the needs of:

Real-time camera ingestion

Live viewing for the security team

Indexed and stored data for the data science teamAnd does so in the most cost-effective and managed way.

A private subnet is a subnet that does not have a route to the internet gateway, which means that the resources in the private subnet cannot access the internet or be accessed from the internet. An S3 VPC endpoint is a gateway endpoint that allows the resources in the VPC to access the S3 service without going through the internet. By launching the notebook instances in a private subnet and accessing the data through an S3 VPC endpoint, the company can set up the job in a secure and compliant way, as the data never leaves the AWS network and is not exposed to the internet. This can also improve the performance and reliability of the data transfer, as the traffic does not depend on the internet bandwidth or availability.

Amazon VPC Endpoints - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Endpoints for Amazon S3 - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Connect to SageMaker Within your VPC - Amazon SageMaker

Working with VPCs and Subnets - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Amazon SageMaker Experiments is a service that helps track, compare, and evaluate different iterations of ML models. It can be used to capture key parameters such as the number of features and the sample count from a PySpark script that runs as a SageMaker processing job. A SageMaker processing job is a flexible and scalable way to run data processing workloads on AWS, such as feature engineering, data validation, model evaluation, and model interpretation.

Amazon SageMaker Experiments

Process Data and Evaluate Models

The best way to maintain the privacy and integrity of the data stored in Amazon S3 is to use a combination of VPC endpoints and S3 bucket policies. A VPC endpoint allows the SageMaker notebook instance to access the S3 bucket without going through the public internet. A bucket policy allows the S3 bucket owner to specify which VPCs or VPC endpoints can access the bucket. This way, the data is protected from unauthorized access and tampering. The other options are either insecure (A and D) or inefficient (B). References: Using Amazon S3 VPC Endpoints, Using Bucket Policies and User Policies

 The best approach to maximize transcription accuracy during the development phase is to create a custom vocabulary file containing each product name with phonetic pronunciations, and use it with Amazon Transcribe to perform the ASR customization. A custom vocabulary is a list of words and phrases that are likely to appear in your audio input, along with optional information about how to pronounce them. By using a custom vocabulary, you can improve the transcription accuracy of domain-specific terms, such as product names, that may not be recognized by the general vocabulary of Amazon Transcribe. You can also analyze the transcripts and manually update the custom vocabulary file to include updated or additional entries for those names that are not being correctly identified.

The other options are not as effective as option C for the following reasons:

Option A is not suitable because Amazon Lex is a service for building conversational interfaces, not for transcribing voicemail messages. Amazon Lex also has a limit of 100 slots per bot, which is not enough to accommodate the 200 unique product names required by the company.

Option B is not optimal because it relies on the word confidence scores in the transcript, which may not be accurate enough to identify all the mis-transcribed product names. Moreover, automatically creating or updating a custom vocabulary file may introduce errors or inconsistencies in the pronunciation or display of the words.

Option D is not feasible because it requires a large amount of training data to build a custom language model. The company only has 4,000 words of Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth voicemail transcripts, which is not enough to train a robust and reliable custom language model. Additionally, creating and updating a custom language model is a time-consuming and resource-intensive process, which may not be suitable for the development phase where frequent changes are expected.

Amazon Transcribe – Custom Vocabulary

Amazon Transcribe – Custom Language Models

[Amazon Lex – Limits]

The correct combination of actions to enable the data scientist’s IAM user to invoke the SageMaker endpoint is B, C, and E, because they ensure that the IAM user has the necessary permissions, access, and syntax to query the ML model from Athena. These actions have the following benefits:

B: Including a policy statement for the IAM user that allows the sagemaker:InvokeEndpoint action grants the IAM user the permission to call the SageMaker Runtime InvokeEndpoint API, which is used to get inferences from the model hosted at the endpoint1.

C: Including an inline policy for the IAM user that allows SageMaker to read S3 objects enables the IAM user to access the data stored in S3, which is the source of the Athena queries2.

E: Including the SQL statement “USING EXTERNAL FUNCTION ml_function_name” in the Athena SQL query allows the IAM user to invoke the ML model as an external function from Athena, which is a feature that enables querying ML models from SQL statements3.

The other options are not correct or necessary, because they have the following drawbacks:

A: Attaching the AmazonAthenaFullAccess AWS managed policy to the user identity is not sufficient, because it does not grant the IAM user the permission to invoke the SageMaker endpoint, which is required to query the ML model4.

D: Including a policy statement for the IAM user that allows the IAM user to perform the sagemaker:GetRecord action is not relevant, because this action is used to retrieve a single record from a feature group, which is not the case in this scenario5.

F: Performing a user remapping in SageMaker to map the IAM user to another IAM user that is on the hosted endpoint is not applicable, because this feature is only available for multi-model endpoints, which are not used in this scenario.

1: InvokeEndpoint - Amazon SageMaker

2: Querying Data in Amazon S3 from Amazon Athena - Amazon Athena

3: Querying machine learning models from Amazon Athena using Amazon SageMaker | AWS Machine Learning Blog

4: AmazonAthenaFullAccess - AWS Identity and Access Management

5: GetRecord - Amazon SageMaker Feature Store Runtime

[Invoke a Multi-Model Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker]

To capture word context and sequential QA information, the embedding vectors need to consider both the order and the meaning of the words in the text.

Option B, Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in Skip-gram mode, is a valid option because it can learn word embeddings that capture the semantic similarity and syntactic relations between words based on their co-occurrence in a window of words. Skip-gram mode can also handle rare words better than continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) mode1.

Option E, combination of the Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in Batch Skip-gram mode with a custom recurrent neural network (RNN), is another valid option because it can leverage the advantages of Skip-gram mode and also use an RNN to model the sequential nature of the text. An RNN can capture the temporal dependencies and long-term dependencies between words, which are important for QA tasks2.

Option A, Amazon SageMaker seq2seq algorithm, is not a valid option because it is designed for sequence-to-sequence tasks such as machine translation, summarization, or chatbots. It does not produce embedding vectors for text series, but rather generates an output sequence given an input sequence3.

Option C, Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec algorithm, is not a valid option because it is designed for learning embeddings for pairs of objects, such as text-image, text-text, or image-image. It does not produce embedding vectors for text series, but rather learns a similarity function between pairs of objects4.

Option D, Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) mode, is not a valid option because it does not capture word context as well as Skip-gram mode. CBOW mode predicts a word given its surrounding words, while Skip-gram mode predicts the surrounding words given a word. CBOW mode is faster and more suitable for frequent words, but Skip-gram mode can learn more meaningful embeddings for rare words1.

1: Amazon SageMaker BlazingText

2: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)

3: Amazon SageMaker Seq2Seq

4: Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec

The solution that will meet the requirements with the least development effort is to use Amazon SageMaker Feature Store to set feature groups for the current features that the ML models use, assign the required metadata for each feature, and use Amazon QuickSight to analyze the metadata. This solution can leverage the existing AWS services and features to perform feature-level metadata analysis and reporting.

Amazon SageMaker Feature Store is a fully managed, purpose-built repository to store, update, search, and share machine learning (ML) features. The service provides feature management capabilities such as enabling easy feature reuse, low latency serving, time travel, and ensuring consistency between features used in training and inference workflows. A feature group is a logical grouping of ML features whose organization and structure is defined by a feature group schema. A feature group schema consists of a list of feature definitions, each of which specifies the name, type, and metadata of a feature. The metadata can include information such as data sensitivity, authorship, description, and parameters. The metadata can help make features discoverable, understandable, and traceable. Amazon SageMaker Feature Store allows users to set feature groups for the current features that the ML models use, and assign the required metadata for each feature using the AWS SDK for Python (Boto3), AWS Command Line Interface (AWS CLI), or Amazon SageMaker Studio1.

Amazon QuickSight is a fully managed, serverless business intelligence service that makes it easy to create and publish interactive dashboards that include ML insights. Amazon QuickSight can connect to various data sources, such as Amazon S3, Amazon Athena, Amazon Redshift, and Amazon SageMaker Feature Store, and analyze the data using standard SQL or built-in ML-powered analytics. Amazon QuickSight can also create rich visualizations and reports that can be accessed from any device, and securely shared with anyone inside or outside an organization. Amazon QuickSight can be used to analyze the metadata of the features stored in Amazon SageMaker Feature Store, and generate a report that summarizes the metadata analysis2.

The other options are either more complex or less effective than the proposed solution. Using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler to select the features and create a data flow to perform feature-level metadata analysis would require additional steps and resources, and may not capture all the metadata attributes that the company requires. Creating an Amazon DynamoDB table to store feature-level metadata would introduce redundancy and inconsistency, as the metadata is already stored in Amazon SageMaker Feature Store. Using SageMaker Studio to analyze the metadata would not generate a report that can be easily shared and accessed by the company.

1: Amazon SageMaker Feature Store – Amazon Web Services

2: Amazon QuickSight – Business Intelligence Service - Amazon Web Services

 Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) is a metric that measures the performance of a binary classifier across all possible thresholds. It is also known as the probability that a randomly chosen positive example will be ranked higher than a randomly chosen negative example by the classifier. AUC is a good metric to compare different classification models because it is independent of the class distribution and the decision threshold. It also captures both the sensitivity (true positive rate) and the specificity (true negative rate) of the model. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Sample Questions

The best solution for this scenario is to set up an AWS Glue job that has the Amazon Redshift cluster as the source and the S3 bucket as the destination, and use the built-in transforms Filter, Map, and RenameField to perform the required transformations. This solution has the following advantages:

It minimizes the effort that is needed to set up infrastructure for the ingestion and transformation, as AWS Glue is a fully managed service that provides a serverless Apache Spark environment, a graphical interface to define data sources and targets, and a code generation feature to create and edit scripts1.

It automates the extraction and transformation process, as AWS Glue can schedule the job to run monthly, and handle the connection, authentication, and configuration of the Amazon Redshift cluster and the S3 bucket2.

It minimizes the load on the Amazon Redshift cluster, as AWS Glue can read the data from the cluster in parallel and use a JDBC connection that supports SSL encryption3.

It performs the required transformations, as AWS Glue can use the built-in transforms Filter, Map, and RenameField to remove the rows with NULL values, split the timestamp column into date and time columns, and rename the card name column, respectively4.

The other solutions are not optimal or suitable, because they have the following drawbacks:

A: Setting up an Amazon EMR cluster and creating an Apache Spark job to read the data from the Amazon Redshift cluster and transform the data is not the most efficient or convenient solution, as it requires more effort and resources to provision, configure, and manage the EMR cluster, and to write and maintain the Spark code5.

B: Setting up an Amazon EC2 instance with a SQL client tool to query the data from the Amazon Redshift cluster directly and export the resulting dataset into a CSV file is not a scalable or reliable solution, as it depends on the availability and performance of the EC2 instance, and the manual execution and upload of the SQL queries and the CSV file6.

D: Using Amazon Redshift Spectrum to run a query that writes the data directly to the S3 bucket and creating an AWS Lambda function to run the query monthly is not a feasible solution, as Amazon Redshift Spectrum does not support writing data to external tables or S3 buckets, only reading data from them7.

1: What Is AWS Glue? - AWS Glue

2: Populating the Data Catalog - AWS Glue

3: Best Practices When Using AWS Glue with Amazon Redshift - AWS Glue

4: Built-In Transforms - AWS Glue

5: What Is Amazon EMR? - Amazon EMR

6: Amazon EC2 - Amazon Web Services (AWS)

7: Using Amazon Redshift Spectrum to Query External Data - Amazon Redshift

 Early stopping is a technique that can be used to prevent overfitting and improve model performance on the validation set. Overfitting occurs when the model learns the training data too well and fails to generalize to new and unseen data. This can be seen in the graph, where the training loss keeps decreasing, but the validation loss starts to increase after some point. This means that the model is fitting the noise and patterns in the training data that are not relevant for the validation data. Early stopping is a way of stopping the training process before the model overfits the training data. It works by monitoring the validation loss and stopping the training when the validation loss stops decreasing or starts increasing. This way, the model is saved at the point where it has the best performance on the validation set. Early stopping can also save time and resources by reducing the number of epochs needed for training. References:

Early Stopping

How to Stop Training Deep Neural Networks At the Right Time Using Early Stopping

To detect anomalous transactions, the company can use a combination of Random Cut Forest (RCF) and XGBoost models. RCF is an unsupervised algorithm that can detect outliers in the data by measuring the depth of each data point in a collection of random decision trees. XGBoost is a supervised algorithm that can learn from the labeled data points generated by RCF and classify them as normal or anomalous. RCF can also provide anomaly scores that can be used as features for XGBoost to improve the accuracy of the classification. References:

1: Amazon SageMaker Random Cut Forest

2: Amazon SageMaker XGBoost Algorithm

3: Anomaly Detection with Amazon SageMaker Random Cut Forest and Amazon SageMaker XGBoost

 The best way to address the overfitting problem in image classification is to increase the dropout rate at the flatten layer because the model is not generalized enough. Dropout is a regularization technique that randomly drops out some units from the neural network during training, reducing the co-adaptation of features and preventing overfitting. The flatten layer is the layer that converts the output of the convolutional layers into a one-dimensional vector that can be fed into the dense layers. Increasing the dropout rate at the flatten layer means that more features from the convolutional layers will be ignored, forcing the model to learn more robust and generalizable representations from the remaining features.

The other options are not correct for this scenario because:

Increasing the learning rate would not help with the overfitting problem, as it would make the optimization process more unstable and prone to overshooting the global minimum. A high learning rate can also cause the model to diverge or oscillate around the optimal solution, resulting in poor performance and accuracy.

Increasing the dimensionality of the dense layer next to the flatten layer would not help with the overfitting problem, as it would make the model more complex and increase the number of parameters to be learned. A more complex model can fit the training data better, but it can also memorize the noise and irrelevant details in the data, leading to overfitting and poor generalization.

Increasing the epoch number would not help with the overfitting problem, as it would make the model train longer and more likely to overfit the training data. A high epoch number can cause the model to converge to the global minimum, but it can also cause the model to over-optimize the training data and lose the ability to generalize to new data.

Dropout: A Simple Way to Prevent Neural Networks from Overfitting

How to Reduce Overfitting With Dropout Regularization in Keras

How to Control the Stability of Training Neural Networks With the Learning Rate

How to Choose the Number of Hidden Layers and Nodes in a Feedforward Neural Network?

How to decide the optimal number of epochs to train a neural network?

To read data from an Amazon S3 bucket that is protected with server-side encryption using AWS KMS, the Amazon SageMaker notebook instance needs to have an IAM role that has permission to access the S3 bucket and the KMS key. The IAM role is an identity that defines the permissions for the notebook instance to interact with other AWS services. The IAM role can be assigned to the notebook instance when it is created or updated later.

The KMS key policy is a document that specifies who can use and manage the KMS key. The KMS key policy can grant permission to the IAM role of the notebook instance to decrypt the data in the S3 bucket. The KMS key policy can also grant permission to other principals, such as AWS accounts, IAM users, or IAM roles, to use the KMS key for encryption and decryption operations.

Therefore, the Machine Learning Specialist should assign an IAM role to the Amazon SageMaker notebook with S3 read access to the dataset. Grant permission in the KMS key policy to that role. This way, the notebook instance can use the IAM role credentials to access the S3 bucket and the KMS key, and read the encrypted data from the S3 bucket.

Create an IAM Role to Grant Permissions to Your Notebook Instance

Using Key Policies in AWS KMS

Option A is correct because reducing the number of features with the SageMaker PCA algorithm can help remove noise and redundancy from the data, and improve the model’s performance. PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique that transforms the original features into a smaller set of linearly uncorrelated features called principal components. The SageMaker linear learner algorithm supports PCA as a built-in feature transformation option.

Option E is correct because using the SageMaker k-NN algorithm with a dimension reduction target of less than 1,000 can help the model learn from the similarity of the data points, and improve the model’s performance. k-NN is a non-parametric algorithm that classifies an input based on the majority vote of its k nearest neighbors in the feature space. The SageMaker k-NN algorithm supports dimension reduction as a built-in feature transformation option.

Option B is incorrect because using the scikit-learn MDS algorithm to reduce the number of features is not a feasible option, as MDS is a computationally expensive technique that does not scale well to large datasets. MDS is a dimensionality reduction technique that tries to preserve the pairwise distances between the original data points in a lower-dimensional space.

Option C is incorrect because setting the predictor type to regressor would change the model’s objective from classification to regression, which is not suitable for the given problem. A regressor model would output a continuous value instead of a binary label for each phone.

Option D is incorrect because using the SageMaker k-means algorithm with k of less than 1,000 would not help the model classify the phones, as k-means is a clustering algorithm that groups the data points into k clusters based on their similarity, without using any labels. A clustering model would not output a binary label for each phone.

Amazon SageMaker Linear Learner Algorithm

Amazon SageMaker K-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) Algorithm

[Principal Component Analysis - Scikit-learn]

[Multidimensional Scaling - Scikit-learn]

 Pushing the data from Microsoft SQL Server to Amazon S3 using an AWS Data Pipeline and providing the S3 location within the notebook is the best approach for training a model using the data stored in Amazon RDS. This is because Amazon SageMaker can directly access data from Amazon S3 and train models on it. AWS Data Pipeline is a service that can automate the movement and transformation of data between different AWS services. It can also use Amazon RDS as a data source and Amazon S3 as a data destination. This way, the data can be transferred efficiently and securely without writing any code within the notebook. References:

Amazon SageMaker

AWS Data Pipeline

The best way to handle the missing values in the patient age feature is to replace them with the mean or median value from the dataset. This is a common technique for imputing missing values that preserves the overall distribution of the data and avoids introducing bias or reducing the sample size. Dropping the records or the feature would result in losing valuable information and reducing the accuracy of the model. Using k-means clustering would not be appropriate for handling missing values in a single feature, as it is a method for grouping similar data points based on multiple features.

Effective Strategies to Handle Missing Values in Data Analysis

How To Handle Missing Values In Machine Learning Data With Weka

How to handle missing values in Python - Machine Learning Plus

The algorithms that are best suited to this scenario are latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) and neural topic modeling (NTM), as they are both unsupervised learning methods that can discover abstract topics from a collection of text documents. LDA and NTM can provide a list of the top words for each topic, as well as the topic distribution for each document, which can help the auditors assess the relevance and priority of the topic12.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option B: A random forest classifier is a supervised learning method that can perform classification or regression tasks by using an ensemble of decision trees. A random forest classifier is not suitable for discovering abstract topics from text documents, as it requires labeled data and predefined classes3.

Option D: A linear support vector machine is a supervised learning method that can perform classification or regression tasks by using a linear function that separates the data into different classes. A linear support vector machine is not suitable for discovering abstract topics from text documents, as it requires labeled data and predefined classes4.

Option E: A linear regression is a supervised learning method that can perform regression tasks by using a linear function that models the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. A linear regression is not suitable for discovering abstract topics from text documents, as it requires labeled data and a continuous output variable5.

1: Latent Dirichlet Allocation

2: Neural Topic Modeling

3: Random Forest Classifier

4: Linear Support Vector Machine

5: Linear Regression

The best technique to improve the recall of the MLP for the target class of interest is to add class weights to the MLP’s loss function and then retrain. Class weights are a way of assigning different importance to each class in the dataset, such that the model will pay more attention to the classes with higher weights. This can help mitigate the class imbalance problem, where the model tends to favor the majority class and ignore the minority class. By increasing the weight of the target class of interest, the model will try to reduce the false negatives and increase the true positives, which will improve the recall metric. Adding class weights to the loss function is also a quick and easy solution, as it does not require gathering more data, changing the model architecture, or switching to a different algorithm.

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training - Deep Learning with Amazon SageMaker

AWS Machine Learning Training - Class Imbalance and Weighted Loss Functions

The solution A will meet the requirements with the least development effort because it uses Amazon Kendra, which is a highly accurate and easy to use intelligent search service powered by machine learning. Amazon Kendra can index company documents from various sources and formats, such as PDF, HTML, Word, and more. Amazon Kendra can also integrate with chatbots by using the Amazon Kendra Query API operation, which can understand natural language questions and provide relevant answers from the indexed documents. Amazon Kendra can also provide additional information, such as document excerpts, links, and FAQs, to enhance the chatbot experience1.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option B: Training a Bidirectional Attention Flow (BiDAF) network based on past customer questions and company documents, deploying the model as a real-time Amazon SageMaker endpoint, and integrating the model with the chatbot by using the SageMaker Runtime InvokeEndpoint API operation will incur more development effort than using Amazon Kendra. The company will have to write the code for the BiDAF network, which is a complex deep learning model for question answering. The company will also have to manage the SageMaker endpoint, the model artifact, and the inference logic2.

Option C: Training an Amazon SageMaker BlazingText model based on past customer questions and company documents, deploying the model as a real-time SageMaker endpoint, and integrating the model with the chatbot by using the SageMaker Runtime InvokeEndpoint API operation will incur more development effort than using Amazon Kendra. The company will have to write the code for the BlazingText model, which is a fast and scalable text classification and word embedding algorithm. The company will also have to manage the SageMaker endpoint, the model artifact, and the inference logic3.

Option D: Indexing company documents by using Amazon OpenSearch Service and integrating the chatbot with OpenSearch Service by using the OpenSearch Service k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) Query API operation will not meet the requirements effectively. Amazon OpenSearch Service is a fully managed service that provides fast and scalable search and analytics capabilities. However, it is not designed for natural language question answering, and it may not provide accurate or relevant answers for the chatbot. Moreover, the k-NN Query API operation is used to find the most similar documents or vectors based on a distance function, not to find the best answers based on a natural language query4.

1: Amazon Kendra

2: Bidirectional Attention Flow for Machine Comprehension

3: Amazon SageMaker BlazingText

4: Amazon OpenSearch Service

 The best strategy to identify fraudulent accounts is to create a FindMatches machine learning transform in AWS Glue. The FindMatches transform enables you to identify duplicate or matching records in your dataset, even when the records do not have a common unique identifier and no fields match exactly. This can help you improve fraud detection by finding accounts that are associated with a previously known fraudulent user. You can teach the FindMatches transform your definition of a “duplicate” or a “match” through examples, and it will use machine learning to identify other potential duplicates or matches in your dataset. You can then use the FindMatches transform in your AWS Glue ETL jobs to cleanse your data.

Option A is incorrect because there is no built-in FindDuplicates Amazon Athena query. Amazon Athena is an interactive query service that makes it easy to analyze data in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. However, Amazon Athena does not provide a predefined query to find duplicate records in a dataset. You would have to write your own SQL query to perform this task, which might not be as effective or accurate as using the FindMatches transform.

Option C is incorrect because creating an AWS Glue crawler to infer duplicate accounts in the source data is not a valid strategy. An AWS Glue crawler is a program that connects to a data store, progresses through a prioritized list of classifiers to determine the schema for your data, and then creates metadata tables in the AWS Glue Data Catalog. A crawler does not perform any data cleansing or record matching tasks.

Option D is incorrect because searching for duplicate accounts in the AWS Glue Data Catalog is not a feasible strategy. The AWS Glue Data Catalog is a central repository to store structural and operational metadata for your data assets. The Data Catalog does not store the actual data, but rather the metadata that describes where the data is located, how it is formatted, and what it contains. Therefore, you cannot search for duplicate records in the Data Catalog.

Record matching with AWS Lake Formation FindMatches - AWS Glue

Amazon Athena – Interactive SQL Queries for Data in Amazon S3

AWS Glue Crawlers - AWS Glue

AWS Glue Data Catalog - AWS Glue

Amazon SageMaker supports encryption at rest for the ML storage volumes, the model artifacts, and the data in Amazon S3 using AWS Key Management Service (AWS KMS). AWS KMS is a service that allows customers to create and manage encryption keys that can be used to encrypt data. AWS KMS also provides an audit trail of key usage by logging key events to AWS CloudTrail. Customers can use either AWS managed keys or customer managed keys to encrypt their data. AWS managed keys are created and managed by AWS on behalf of the customer, while customer managed keys are created and managed by the customer. Customer managed keys offer more control and flexibility over the key policies, permissions, and rotation. Therefore, to meet the requirements of the company, the best option is to use customer managed keys in AWS KMS to encrypt the ML data volumes, and to encrypt the model artifacts and data in Amazon S3.

The other options are not correct because:

Option A: AWS Cloud HSM is a service that provides hardware security modules (HSMs) to store and use encryption keys. AWS Cloud HSM is not integrated with Amazon SageMaker, and cannot be used to encrypt the ML data volumes, the model artifacts, or the data in Amazon S3. AWS Cloud HSM is more suitable for customers who need to meet strict compliance requirements or who need direct control over the HSMs.

Option B: SageMaker built-in transient keys are temporary keys that are used to encrypt the ML data volumes and are discarded immediately after encryption. These keys do not provide persistent encryption or logging of key usage. Enabling default encryption for new Amazon Elastic Block Store (Amazon EBS) volumes does not affect the ML data volumes, which are encrypted separately by SageMaker. Moreover, this option does not address the encryption of the model artifacts and data in Amazon S3.

Option D: AWS Security Token Service (AWS STS) is a service that provides temporary credentials to access AWS resources. AWS STS does not provide encryption keys or encryption services. AWS STS cannot be used to encrypt the ML storage volumes, the model artifacts, or the data in Amazon S3.

Protect Data at Rest Using Encryption - Amazon SageMaker

What is AWS Key Management Service? - AWS Key Management Service

What is AWS CloudHSM? - AWS CloudHSM

What is AWS Security Token Service? - AWS Security Token Service

 A precision-recall curve is a plot that shows the trade-off between the precision and recall of a binary classifier as the decision threshold is varied. It is a useful tool for evaluating and comparing the performance of different models. To generate a precision-recall curve, the following steps are needed:

Calculate the precision and recall values for different threshold values using the predictions and the true labels of the data.

Plot the precision values on the y-axis and the recall values on the x-axis for each threshold value.

Optionally, calculate the area under the curve (AUC) as a summary metric of the model performance.

Among the four options, option C requires the least coding effort to generate and share a visualization of the daily precision-recall curve from the predictions. This option involves the following steps:

Run a daily Amazon EMR workflow to generate precision-recall data: Amazon EMR is a service that allows running big data frameworks, such as Apache Spark, on a managed cluster of EC2 instances. Amazon EMR can handle large-scale data processing and analysis, such as calculating the precision and recall values for different threshold values from 100 TB of predictions. Amazon EMR supports various languages, such as Python, Scala, and R, for writing the code to perform the calculations. Amazon EMR also supports scheduling workflows using Apache Airflow or AWS Step Functions, which can automate the daily execution of the code.

Save the results in Amazon S3: Amazon S3 is a service that provides scalable, durable, and secure object storage. Amazon S3 can store the precision-recall data generated by Amazon EMR in a cost-effective and accessible way. Amazon S3 supports various data formats, such as CSV, JSON, or Parquet, for storing the data. Amazon S3 also integrates with other AWS services, such as Amazon QuickSight, for further processing and visualization of the data.

Visualize the arrays in Amazon QuickSight: Amazon QuickSight is a service that provides fast, easy-to-use, and interactive business intelligence and data visualization. Amazon QuickSight can connect to Amazon S3 as a data source and import the precision-recall data into a dataset. Amazon QuickSight can then create a line chart to plot the precision-recall curve from the dataset. Amazon QuickSight also supports calculating the AUC and adding it as an annotation to the chart.

Publish them in a dashboard shared with the Business team: Amazon QuickSight allows creating and publishing dashboards that contain one or more visualizations from the datasets. Amazon QuickSight also allows sharing the dashboards with other users or groups within the same AWS account or across different AWS accounts. The Business team can access the dashboard with read-only permissions and view the daily precision-recall curve from the predictions.

The other options require more coding effort than option C for the following reasons:

Option A: This option requires writing code to plot the precision-recall curve from the data stored in Amazon S3, as well as creating a mechanism to share the plot with the Business team. This can involve using additional libraries or tools, such as matplotlib, seaborn, or plotly, for creating the plot, and using email, web, or cloud services, such as AWS Lambda or Amazon SNS, for sharing the plot.

Option B: This option requires transforming the predictions into a format that Amazon QuickSight can recognize and import as a data source, such as CSV, JSON, or Parquet. This can involve writing code to process and convert the predictions, as well as uploading them to a storage service, such as Amazon S3 or Amazon Redshift, that Amazon QuickSight can connect to.

Option D: This option requires writing code to generate precision-recall data in Amazon ES, as well as creating a dashboard to visualize the data. Amazon ES is a service that provides a fully managed Elasticsearch cluster, which is mainly used for search and analytics purposes. Amazon ES is not designed for generating precision-recall data, and it requires using a specific data format, such as JSON, for storing the data. Amazon ES also requires using a tool, such as Kibana, for creating and sharing the dashboard, which can involve additional configuration and customization steps.

Precision-Recall

What Is Amazon EMR?

What Is Amazon S3?

[What Is Amazon QuickSight?]

[What Is Amazon Elasticsearch Service?]

 Amazon Forecast requires the input data to be in a specific format. The data scientist should use ETL jobs in AWS Glue to separate the dataset into a target time series dataset and an item metadata dataset. The target time series dataset should contain the timestamp, item_id, and demand columns, while the item metadata dataset should contain the item_id, category, and lead_time columns. Both datasets should be uploaded as .csv files to Amazon S3 . References:

How Amazon Forecast Works - Amazon Forecast

Choosing Datasets - Amazon Forecast

Amazon Comprehend is a natural language processing (NLP) service that uses machine learning to find insights and relationships in text. It can analyze text documents and identify the key topics, entities, sentiments, languages, and more. In this case, Amazon Comprehend can be used with the transcribed files from Amazon Transcribe to extract the main topics that are being discussed by the call operators. This can help to understand the common issues and concerns of the customers, and provide insights for further analysis and improvement. References:

Amazon Comprehend - Amazon Web Services

AWS Certified Machine Learning - Specialty Sample Questions

To build a conversational interface that can use natural language to get data from the reports, the company can use a combination of services that can handle both written and spoken inputs, understand the user’s intent and query, and extract the relevant information from the reports. The services that can be used for this purpose are:

Amazon Lex: A service for building conversational interfaces into any application using voice and text. Amazon Lex can create chatbots that can interact with users using natural language, and integrate with other AWS services such as Amazon Connect, Amazon Comprehend, and Amazon Transcribe. Amazon Lex can also use lambda functions to implement the business logic and fulfill the user’s requests.

Amazon Comprehend: A service for natural language processing and text analytics. Amazon Comprehend can analyze text and speech inputs and extract insights such as entities, key phrases, sentiment, syntax, and topics. Amazon Comprehend can also use custom classifiers and entity recognizers to identify specific terms and concepts that are relevant to the domain of the reports.

Amazon Transcribe: A service for speech-to-text conversion. Amazon Transcribe can transcribe audio inputs into text outputs, and add punctuation and formatting. Amazon Transcribe can also use custom vocabularies and language models to improve the accuracy and quality of the transcription for the specific domain of the reports.

Therefore, the company can use the following architecture to build the conversational interface:

Use Amazon Lex to create a chatbot that can accept both written and spoken inputs from the executives. The chatbot can use intents, utterances, and slots to capture the user’s query and parameters, such as the report name, date, metric, or filter.

Use Amazon Transcribe to convert the spoken inputs into text outputs, and pass them to Amazon Lex. Amazon Transcribe can use a custom vocabulary and language model to recognize the terms and concepts related to the reports.

Use Amazon Comprehend to analyze the text inputs and outputs, and extract the relevant information from the reports. Amazon Comprehend can use a custom classifier and entity recognizer to identify the report name, date, metric, or filter from the user’s query, and the corresponding data from the reports.

Use a lambda function to implement the business logic and fulfillment of the user’s query, such as retrieving the data from the reports, performing calculations or aggregations, and formatting the response. The lambda function can also handle errors and validations, and provide feedback to the user.

Use Amazon Lex to return the response to the user, either in text or speech format, depending on the user’s preference.

What Is Amazon Lex?

What Is Amazon Comprehend?

What Is Amazon Transcribe?

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose is a service that can ingest streaming data and store it in various destinations, including Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon Elasticsearch Service, and Splunk. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose can also convert the incoming data to Apache Parquet or Apache ORC format before storing it in Amazon S3. This can reduce the storage cost and improve the performance of analytical queries on the data. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose supports various data sources, such as Amazon Kinesis Data Streams, Amazon Managed Streaming for Apache Kafka, AWS IoT, and custom applications. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose can also apply data transformation and compression using AWS Lambda functions.

AWSDMS is not a valid service name. AWS Database Migration Service (AWS DMS) is a service that can migrate data from various sources to various targets, but it does not support streaming data or Parquet format.

Amazon Kinesis Data Streams is a service that can ingest and process streaming data in real time, but it does not store the data in any destination. Amazon Kinesis Data Streams can be integrated with Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose to store the data in Parquet format.

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data using SQL or Apache Flink, but it does not store the data in any destination. Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics can be integrated with Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose to store the data in Parquet format. References:

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose - Amazon Web Services

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose? - Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose FAQs - Amazon Web Services

The Data Scientist should increase the XGBoost scale_pos_weight parameter to adjust the balance of positive and negative weights and change the XGBoost eval_metric parameter to optimize based on Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC). This will help reduce the number of false negative predictions by the model.

The scale_pos_weight parameter controls the balance of positive and negative weights in the XGBoost algorithm. It is useful for imbalanced classification problems, such as fraud detection, where the number of positive examples (fraudulent transactions) is much smaller than the number of negative examples (non-fraudulent transactions). By increasing the scale_pos_weight parameter, the Data Scientist can assign more weight to the positive class and make the model more sensitive to detecting fraudulent transactions.

The eval_metric parameter specifies the metric that is used to measure the performance of the model during training and validation. The default metric for binary classification problems is the error rate, which is the fraction of incorrect predictions. However, the error rate is not a good metric for imbalanced classification problems, because it does not take into account the cost of different types of errors. For example, in fraud detection, a false negative (failing to detect a fraudulent transaction) is more costly than a false positive (flagging a non-fraudulent transaction as fraudulent). Therefore, the Data Scientist should use a metric that reflects the trade-off between the true positive rate (TPR) and the false positive rate (FPR), such as the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC). The AUC is a measure of how well the model can distinguish between the positive and negative classes, regardless of the classification threshold. A higher AUC means that the model can achieve a higher TPR with a lower FPR, which is desirable for fraud detection.

XGBoost Parameters - Amazon Machine Learning

Using XGBoost with Amazon SageMaker - AWS Machine Learning Blog

A VPC endpoint is a logical device that enables private connections between a VPC and supported AWS services. A VPC endpoint can be either a gateway endpoint or an interface endpoint. A gateway endpoint is a gateway that is a target for a specified route in the route table, used for traffic destined to a supported AWS service. An interface endpoint is an elastic network interface with a private IP address that serves as an entry point for traffic destined to a supported service1

In this case, the Machine Learning Specialist can create a gateway endpoint for Amazon S3, which is a supported service for gateway endpoints. A gateway endpoint for Amazon S3 enables the VPC to access Amazon S3 privately, without requiring an internet gateway, NAT device, VPN connection, or AWS Direct Connect connection. The traffic between the VPC and Amazon S3 does not leave the Amazon network2

To restrict access to the dataset stored in Amazon S3, the Machine Learning Specialist can apply a bucket access policy that allows access only from the given VPC endpoint and the VPC. A bucket access policy is a resource-based policy that defines who can access a bucket and what actions they can perform. A bucket access policy can use various conditions to control access, such as the source IP address, the source VPC, the source VPC endpoint, etc. In this case, the Machine Learning Specialist can use the aws:sourceVpce condition to specify the ID of the VPC endpoint, and the aws:sourceVpc condition to specify the ID of the VPC. This way, only the requests that originate from the VPC endpoint or the VPC can access the bucket that contains the dataset34

The other options are not valid or secure ways to satisfy the requirements. Creating a VPC endpoint and applying a bucket access policy that allows access from the given VPC endpoint and an Amazon EC2 instance is not a good option, as it does not restrict access to the VPC. An Amazon EC2 instance is a virtual server that runs in the AWS cloud. An Amazon EC2 instance can have a public IP address or a private IP address, depending on the network configuration. Allowing access from an Amazon EC2 instance does not guarantee that the instance is in the same VPC as the VPC endpoint, and may expose the dataset to unauthorized access. Creating a VPC endpoint and using Network Access Control Lists (NACLs) to allow traffic between only the given VPC endpoint and an Amazon EC2 instance is not a good option, as it does not restrict access to the VPC. NACLs are stateless firewalls that can control inbound and outbound traffic at the subnet level. NACLs can use rules to allow or deny traffic based on the protocol, port, and source or destination IP address. However, NACLs do not support VPC endpoints as a source or destination, and cannot filter traffic based on the VPC endpoint ID or the VPC ID. Therefore, using NACLs does not guarantee that the traffic is from the VPC endpoint or the VPC, and may expose the dataset to unauthorized access. Creating a VPC endpoint and using security groups to restrict access to the given VPC endpoint and an Amazon EC2 instance is not a good option, as it does not restrict access to the VPC. Security groups are stateful firewalls that can control inbound and outbound traffic at the instance level. Security groups can use rules to allow or deny traffic based on the protocol, port, and source or destination. However, security groups do not support VPC endpoints as a source or destination, and cannot filter traffic based on the VPC endpoint ID or the VPC ID. Therefore, using security groups does not guarantee that the traffic is from the VPC endpoint or the VPC, and may expose the dataset to unauthorized access.

 The best option is to deploy the Lambda function and the ML models onto the AWS IoT Greengrass core that is running on the industrial PCs that are installed on each machine. This way, the inference can be performed locally on the edge devices, without the need to upload the images to Amazon S3 and invoke the SageMaker endpoint. This will reduce the latency and the network bandwidth consumption. The long-running Lambda function can be extended to invoke the Lambda function with the captured images and run the inference on the edge component that forwards the results directly to the web service. This will also simplify the architecture and eliminate the dependency on the internet connection.

Option A is not cost-effective, as it requires setting up a 10 Gbps AWS Direct Connect connection and increasing the size and number of instances for the SageMaker endpoint. This will increase the operational costs and complexity.

Option B is not optimal, as it still requires uploading the images to Amazon S3 and invoking the SageMaker endpoint. Compressing and decompressing the images will add additional processing overhead and latency.

Option C is not sufficient, as it still requires uploading the images to Amazon S3 and invoking the SageMaker endpoint. Auto scaling for SageMaker will help to handle the increased workload, but it will not reduce the latency or the network bandwidth consumption. Setting up an AWS Direct Connect connection will improve the network performance, but it will also increase the operational costs and complexity. References:

AWS IoT Greengrass

Deploying Machine Learning Models to Edge Devices

AWS Certified Machine Learning - Specialty Exam Guide

The company wants to perform near-real time defect detection on a time-series of 200 performance metrics, and store all the data for offline analysis. The best approach for this scenario is to use Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose for ingestion and Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics Random Cut Forest (RCF) to perform anomaly detection. Use Kinesis Data Firehose to store data in Amazon S3 for further analysis.

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose is a service that can capture, transform, and deliver streaming data to destinations such as Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon OpenSearch Service, and Splunk. Kinesis Data Firehose can handle any amount and frequency of data, and automatically scale to match the throughput. Kinesis Data Firehose can also compress, encrypt, and batch the data before delivering it to the destination, reducing the storage cost and enhancing the security.

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data in real time using SQL or Apache Flink applications. Kinesis Data Analytics can use built-in functions and algorithms to perform various analytics tasks, such as aggregations, joins, filters, windows, and anomaly detection. One of the built-in algorithms that Kinesis Data Analytics supports is Random Cut Forest (RCF), which is a supervised learning algorithm for forecasting scalar time series using recurrent neural networks. RCF can detect anomalies in streaming data by assigning an anomaly score to each data point, based on how distant it is from the rest of the data. RCF can handle multiple related time series, such as the performance metrics of the aircraft engine, and learn a global model that captures the common patterns and trends across the time series.

Therefore, the company can use the following architecture to build the near-real time defect detection solution:

Use Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose for ingestion: The company can use Kinesis Data Firehose to capture the streaming data from the aircraft engine testing, and deliver it to two destinations: Amazon S3 and Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics. The company can configure the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to specify the source, the buffer size and interval, the compression and encryption options, the error handling and retry logic, and the destination details.

Use Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics Random Cut Forest (RCF) to perform anomaly detection: The company can use Kinesis Data Analytics to create a SQL application that can read the streaming data from the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream, and apply the RCF algorithm to detect anomalies. The company can use the RANDOM_CUT_FOREST or RANDOM_CUT_FOREST_WITH_EXPLANATION functions to compute the anomaly scores and attributions for each data point, and use the WHERE clause to filter out the normal data points. The company can also use the CURSOR function to specify the input stream, and the PUMP function to write the output stream to another destination, such as Amazon Kinesis Data Streams or AWS Lambda.

Use Kinesis Data Firehose to store data in Amazon S3 for further analysis: The company can use Kinesis Data Firehose to store the raw and processed data in Amazon S3 for offline analysis. The company can use the S3 destination of the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to store the raw data, and use another Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to store the output of the Kinesis Data Analytics application. The company can also use AWS Glue or Amazon Athena to catalog, query, and analyze the data in Amazon S3.

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose?

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics for SQL Applications?

DeepAR Forecasting Algorithm - Amazon SageMaker

The elbow method is a technique that we use to determine the number of centroids (k) to use in a k-means clustering algorithm. In this method, we plot the within-cluster sum of squares (WCSS) against the number of clusters (k) and look for the point where the curve bends sharply. This point is called the elbow point and it indicates that adding more clusters does not improve the model significantly. The graph in the question shows that the elbow point is at k = 4, which means that 4 is a reasonable choice for the optimal number of clusters. References:

Elbow Method for optimal value of k in KMeans: A tutorial on how to use the elbow method with Amazon SageMaker.

K-Means Clustering: A video that explains the concept and benefits of k-means clustering.

The best solution to meet the requirements is to tune the csv_weight hyperparameter and the scale_pos_weight hyperparameter by using automatic model tuning (AMT). Optimize on {“HyperParameterTuningJobObjective”: {“MetricName”: “validation:f1”, “Type”: “Maximize”}}.

The csv_weight hyperparameter is used to specify the instance weights for the training data in CSV format. This can help handle imbalanced data by assigning higher weights to the minority class examples and lower weights to the majority class examples. The scale_pos_weight hyperparameter is used to control the balance of positive and negative weights. It is the ratio of the number of negative class examples to the number of positive class examples. Setting a higher value for this hyperparameter can increase the importance of the positive class and improve the recall. Both of these hyperparameters can help the XGBoost model capture as many instances of returned items as possible.

Automatic model tuning (AMT) is a feature of Amazon SageMaker that automates the process of finding the best hyperparameter values for a machine learning model. AMT uses Bayesian optimization to search the hyperparameter space and evaluate the model performance based on a predefined objective metric. The objective metric is the metric that AMT tries to optimize by adjusting the hyperparameter values. For imbalanced classification problems, accuracy is not a good objective metric, as it can be misleading and biased towards the majority class. A better objective metric is the F1 score, which is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. The F1 score can reflect the balance between precision and recall and is more suitable for imbalanced data. The F1 score ranges from 0 to 1, where 1 is the best possible value. Therefore, the type of the objective should be “Maximize” to achieve the highest F1 score.

By tuning the csv_weight and scale_pos_weight hyperparameters and optimizing on the F1 score, the data scientist can meet the requirements most cost-effectively. This solution requires tuning only two hyperparameters, which can reduce the computation time and cost compared to tuning all possible hyperparameters. This solution also uses the appropriate objective metric for imbalanced classification, which can improve the model performance and capture more instances of returned items.

For regression tasks that predict continuous numerical values, such as estimating delivery times, appropriate evaluation metrics quantify the difference between predicted and actual values. Two commonly used metrics are:​

Mean Squared Error (MSE): Calculates the average of the squares of the errors, providing a measure of the quality of an estimator.​

Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE): The square root of MSE, offering an error metric in the same units as the target variable, which aids in interpretability.​

These metrics are standard for assessing the performance of regression models, especially when the goal is to predict continuous outcomes accurately.

The combination of actions that will meet the requirements with the least operational overhead is to use SageMaker Clarify to automatically detect data bias and to configure SageMaker Data Wrangler to generate a bias report. SageMaker Clarify is a feature of Amazon SageMaker that provides machine learning (ML) developers with tools to gain greater insights into their ML training data and models. SageMaker Clarify can detect potential bias during data preparation, after model training, and in your deployed model. For instance, you can check for bias related to age in your dataset or in your trained model and receive a detailed report that quantifies different types of potential bias1. SageMaker Data Wrangler is another feature of Amazon SageMaker that enables you to prepare data for machine learning (ML) quickly and easily. You can use SageMaker Data Wrangler to identify potential bias during data preparation without having to write your own code. You specify input features, such as gender or age, and SageMaker Data Wrangler runs an analysis job to detect potential bias in those features. SageMaker Data Wrangler then provides a visual report with a description of the metrics and measurements of potential bias so that you can identify steps to remediate the bias2. The other actions either require more customization (such as using SageMaker Model Monitor or SageMaker Experiments) or do not meet the requirement of detecting data bias (such as using SageMaker Ground Truth). References:

1: Bias Detection and Model Explainability – Amazon Web Services

2: Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler – Amazon Web Services

The input mode for the training job determines how the training data is transferred from Amazon S3 to the SageMaker instance. There are two input modes: File and Pipe. File mode copies the entire training dataset from S3 to the local file system of the instance before starting the training job. This can cause a long delay before the training job launches, especially if the dataset is large. Pipe mode streams the data from S3 to the instance as the training job runs. This can reduce the startup time and improve the I/O throughput, as the data is read in smaller batches. Therefore, to address the performance issues with the current solution, the Specialist should ensure that the input mode for the training job is set to Pipe. This can be done by using the SageMaker Python SDK and setting the input_mode parameter to Pipe when creating the estimator or the fit method12. Alternatively, this can be done by using the AWS CLI and setting the InputMode parameter to Pipe when creating the training job3.

Access Training Data - Amazon SageMaker

Choosing Data Input Mode Using the SageMaker Python SDK - Amazon SageMaker

CreateTrainingJob - Amazon SageMaker Service

The company needs to transcribe petabytes of audio files from an on-premises VoIP system to an S3 bucket in the AWS Cloud. The transcription algorithm requires GPUs for inference, which are not available on the on-premises system. The VPN connection over a 100 Mbps connection is not sufficient to transfer the large amount of data quickly. Therefore, the company should use an AWS Snowball Edge Compute Optimized device with an NVIDIA Tesla module to run the transcription algorithm locally and leverage the GPU power. The device can store up to 42 TB of data and can be shipped back to AWS for data ingestion. The company can use AWS DataSync to send the resulting transcriptions to the transcription S3 bucket in the AWS Cloud. This solution minimizes the network bandwidth and latency issues and enables faster data processing and transfer.

Option B is incorrect because AWS Snowcone is a small, portable, rugged, and secure edge computing and data transfer device that can store up to 8 TB of data. It is not suitable for processing petabytes of data and does not support GPU-based instances.

Option C is incorrect because AWS Outposts is a service that extends AWS infrastructure, services, APIs, and tools to virtually any data center, co-location space, or on-premises facility. It is not designed for data transfer and ingestion, and it would require additional infrastructure and maintenance costs.

Option D is incorrect because AWS DataSync is a service that makes it easy to move large amounts of data to and from AWS over the internet or AWS Direct Connect. However, using DataSync to ingest the audio files to S3 would still be limited by the network bandwidth and latency. Moreover, running the transcription algorithm on AWS Lambda would incur additional costs and complexity, and it would not leverage the GPU power that the algorithm requires.

AWS Snowball Edge Compute Optimized

AWS DataSync

AWS Snowcone

AWS Outposts

AWS Lambda

The SageMaker Spark library is a library that enables Apache Spark applications to integrate with Amazon SageMaker for training and hosting machine learning models. The library provides several features, such as:

Estimators: Classes that allow Spark users to train Amazon SageMaker models and host them on Amazon SageMaker endpoints using the Spark MLlib Pipelines API. The library supports various built-in algorithms, such as linear learner, XGBoost, K-means, etc., as well as custom algorithms using Docker containers.

Model classes: Classes that wrap Amazon SageMaker models in a Spark MLlib Model abstraction. This allows Spark users to use Amazon SageMaker endpoints for inference within Spark applications.

Data sources: Classes that allow Spark users to read data from Amazon S3 using the Spark Data Sources API. The library supports various data formats, such as CSV, LibSVM, RecordIO, etc.

To integrate the Spark application with SageMaker, the Machine Learning Specialist should do the following:

Install the SageMaker Spark library in the Spark environment. This can be done by using Maven, pip, or downloading the JAR file from GitHub.

Use the appropriate estimator from the SageMaker Spark Library to train a model. For example, to train a linear learner model, the Specialist can use the following code:

Use the sageMakerModel. transform method to get inferences from the model hosted in SageMaker. For example, to get predictions for a test DataFrame, the Specialist can use the following code:

[SageMaker Spark]: A documentation page that introduces the SageMaker Spark library and its features.

[SageMaker Spark GitHub Repository]: A GitHub repository that contains the source code, examples, and installation instructions for the SageMaker Spark library.

To retrieve only the latest version of a record in real-time for a single entity (like a customer), the correct method is to use the GetRecord API provided by SageMaker Feature Store.

“Use the GetRecord API to retrieve the latest feature values for a specific record identifier from the online store. This operation returns the latest version of the record only.”

This is optimal for low-latency, single-record lookups, such as real-time inference scenarios. BatchGetRecord is used for multiple records, and Athena queries are for offline/batch analysis and not suited for real-time access.

 The best combination of AWS services to meet the requirements of data discovery, enrichment, transformation, querying, analysis, and reporting with the least coding and infrastructure management is AWS Glue, Amazon Athena, and Amazon QuickSight. These services are:

AWS Glue for data discovery, enrichment, and transformation. AWS Glue is a serverless data integration service that automatically crawls, catalogs, and prepares data from various sources and formats. It also provides a visual interface called AWS Glue DataBrew that allows users to apply over 250 transformations to clean, normalize, and enrich data without writing code1

Amazon Athena for querying and analyzing the results in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. Amazon Athena is a serverless interactive query service that allows users to analyze data in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. It supports a variety of data formats, such as CSV, JSON, ORC, Parquet, and Avro. It also integrates with AWS Glue Data Catalog to provide a unified view of the data sources and schemas2

Amazon QuickSight for reporting and getting insights. Amazon QuickSight is a serverless business intelligence service that allows users to create and share interactive dashboards and reports. It also provides ML-powered features, such as anomaly detection, forecasting, and natural language queries, to help users discover hidden insights from their data3

The other options are not suitable because they either require more coding effort, more infrastructure management, or do not support the desired use cases. For example:

Option A uses Amazon EMR for data discovery, enrichment, and transformation. Amazon EMR is a managed cluster platform that runs Apache Spark, Apache Hive, and other open-source frameworks for big data processing. It requires users to write code in languages such as Python, Scala, or SQL to perform data integration tasks. It also requires users to provision, configure, and scale the clusters according to their needs4

Option B uses Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics for data ingestion. Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that allows users to process streaming data in real time using SQL or Apache Flink. It is not suitable for data discovery, enrichment, and transformation, which are typically batch-oriented tasks. It also requires users to write code to define the data processing logic and the output destination5

Option D uses AWS Data Pipeline for data transfer and AWS Step Functions for orchestrating AWS Lambda jobs for data discovery, enrichment, and transformation. AWS Data Pipeline is a service that helps users move data between AWS services and on-premises data sources. AWS Step Functions is a service that helps users coordinate multiple AWS services into workflows. AWS Lambda is a service that lets users run code without provisioning or managing servers. These services require users to write code to define the data sources, destinations, transformations, and workflows. They also require users to manage the scalability, performance, and reliability of the data pipelines.

1: AWS Glue - Data Integration Service - Amazon Web Services

2: Amazon Athena – Interactive SQL Query Service - AWS

3: Amazon QuickSight - Business Intelligence Service - AWS

4: Amazon EMR - Amazon Web Services

5: Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics - Amazon Web Services

AWS Data Pipeline - Amazon Web Services

AWS Step Functions - Amazon Web Services

AWS Lambda - Amazon Web Services

 The best model for predicting housing prices based on a historical dataset with 32 features is linear regression. Linear regression is a supervised learning algorithm that fits a linear relationship between a dependent variable (housing price) and one or more independent variables (features). Linear regression can handle multiple features and output a continuous value for the housing price. Linear regression can also return the coefficients of the features, which indicate how each feature affects the housing price. Linear regression is suitable for this problem because the outcome of interest is numerical and continuous, and the model needs to capture the linear relationship between the features and the outcome.

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training - Regression vs Classification in Machine Learning

AWS Machine Learning Training - Linear Regression with Amazon SageMaker

To build a scalable, serverless, and cost-effective data ingestion pipeline, this solution uses a Kinesis data stream to handle fluctuations in data flow, buffering and distributing incoming data in real time. By connecting two Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose delivery streams to the Kinesis data stream, the company can simultaneously route data to Amazon S3 for backup and Amazon OpenSearch Service for analysis.

This approach meets all requirements by providing automatic scaling, reducing operational overhead, and ensuring data storage and analysis without duplicating efforts or needing additional infrastructure.

To adapt a previously trained model to a new but related task efficiently, the best practice is to leverage transfer learning. This involves retaining the learned features from the earlier model and only retraining the final layers to accommodate the new classification categories.​

In the context of a hybrid architecture combining a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN):​

CNN Component: The CNN is responsible for extracting spatial features from video frames. Since the early layers of a CNN capture generic features like edges and textures, they are often transferable across tasks. Therefore, only the last fully connected layer, which maps these features to specific object classes, needs to be reinitialized and retrained for the new set of objects.​

RNN Component: The RNN handles the temporal dynamics of the sequence data. Similar to the CNN, the earlier layers of the RNN capture general sequence patterns. Thus, reinitializing and retraining only the last layer of the RNN allows the model to adapt to the new prediction task without the need to retrain the entire network.​

This approach minimizes training time and computational resources while effectively adapting the model to new tasks.

A neural network pre-trained on ImageNet is a deep learning model that has been trained on a large dataset of images containing 1000 classes of objects. The model can learn to extract high-level features from the images that capture the semantic and visual information of the objects. The penultimate layer of the model is the layer before the final output layer, and it contains a feature vector that represents the input image in a lower-dimensional space. By running images through a pre-trained neural network and collecting the feature vectors from the penultimate layer, the Specialist can obtain relevant numerical representations that can be used for nearest-neighbor searches. The feature vectors can capture the similarity between images based on the presence and appearance of similar objects, and they can be compared using distance metrics such as Euclidean distance or cosine similarity. This approach can enable the recommendation engine to show a picture that captures similar objects to a given picture.

ImageNet - Wikipedia

How to use a pre-trained neural network to extract features from images | by Rishabh Anand | Analytics Vidhya | Medium

Image Similarity using Deep Ranking | by Aditya Oke | Towards Data Science

The solution C meets the requirements because it minimizes costs for compute infrastructure, maximizes the scalability of resources for training, and facilitates the use of an ML model in low-connectivity environments. The solution C involves the following steps:

Move the training data to an Amazon S3 bucket. This will enable the company to store the large amount of data in a durable, scalable, and cost-effective way. It will also allow the company to access the data from the cloud for training and evaluation purposes1.

Train and evaluate the model by using Amazon SageMaker. This will enable the company to use a fully managed service that provides various features and tools for building, training, tuning, and deploying ML models. Amazon SageMaker can handle large-scale data processing and distributed training, and it can leverage the power of AWS compute resources such as Amazon EC2, Amazon EKS, and AWS Fargate2.

Optimize the model by using SageMaker Neo. This will enable the company to reduce the size of the model and improve its performance and efficiency. SageMaker Neo can compile the model into an executable that can run on various hardware platforms, such as CPUs, GPUs, and edge devices3.

Set up an edge device in the manufacturing facilities with AWS IoT Greengrass. This will enable the company to deploy the model on a local device that can run inference in real time, even in low-connectivity environments. AWS IoT Greengrass can extend AWS cloud capabilities to the edge, and it can securely communicate with the cloud for updates and synchronization4.

Deploy the model on the edge device. This will enable the company to automate quality control in its facilities by using the model to detect defects in new parts as they move on a conveyor belt. The model can run inference locally on the edge device without requiring internet connectivity, and it can send the results to the cloud when the connection is available4.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Deploying the model on a SageMaker hosting services endpoint will not facilitate the use of the model in low-connectivity environments, as it will require internet access to perform inference. Moreover, it may incur higher costs for hosting and data transfer than deploying the model on an edge device.

Option B: Training and evaluating the model on premises will not minimize costs for compute infrastructure, as it will require the company to maintain and upgrade its own hardware and software. Moreover, it will not maximize the scalability of resources for training, as it will limit the company’s ability to leverage the cloud’s elasticity and flexibility.

Option D: Training the model on premises will not minimize costs for compute infrastructure, nor maximize the scalability of resources for training, for the same reasons as option B.

1: Amazon S3

2: Amazon SageMaker

3: SageMaker Neo

4: AWS IoT Greengrass

 Residual plots are a model evaluation technique that can be used to understand whether a regression model is more frequently overestimating or underestimating the target. Residual plots are graphs that plot the residuals (the difference between the actual and predicted values) against the predicted values or other variables. Residual plots can help the Machine Learning Specialist to identify the patterns and trends in the residuals, such as the direction, shape, and distribution. Residual plots can also reveal the presence of outliers, heteroscedasticity, non-linearity, or other problems in the model12

To determine whether the model is overestimating or underestimating the target, the Machine Learning Specialist can use a residual plot that plots the residuals against the predicted values. This type of residual plot is also known as a prediction error plot. A prediction error plot can show the magnitude and direction of the errors made by the model. If the model is overestimating the target, the residuals will be negative, and the points will be below the zero line. If the model is underestimating the target, the residuals will be positive, and the points will be above the zero line. If the model is accurate, the residuals will be close to zero, and the points will be scattered around the zero line. A prediction error plot can also show the variance and bias of the model. If the model has high variance, the residuals will have a large spread, and the points will be far from the zero line. If the model has high bias, the residuals will have a systematic pattern, such as a curve or a slope, and the points will not be randomly distributed around the zero line. A prediction error plot can help the Machine Learning Specialist to optimize the model by adjusting the complexity, features, or parameters of the model34

The other options are not valid or suitable for determining whether the model is overestimating or underestimating the target. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) is a model evaluation metric that measures the average magnitude of the errors made by the model. RMSE is the square root of the mean of the squared residuals. RMSE can indicate the overall accuracy and performance of the model, but it cannot show the direction or distribution of the errors. RMSE can also be influenced by outliers or extreme values, and it may not be comparable across different models or datasets5 Area under the curve (AUC) is a model evaluation metric that measures the ability of the model to distinguish between the positive and negative classes. AUC is the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, which plots the true positive rate against the false positive rate for various classification thresholds. AUC can indicate the overall quality and performance of the model, but it is only applicable for binary classification models, not regression models. AUC cannot show the magnitude or direction of the errors made by the model. Confusion matrix is a model evaluation technique that summarizes the number of correct and incorrect predictions made by the model for each class. A confusion matrix is a table that shows the counts of true positives, false positives, true negatives, and false negatives for each class. A confusion matrix can indicate the accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score of the model for each class, but it is only applicable for classification models, not regression models. A confusion matrix cannot show the magnitude or direction of the errors made by the model.

A collaborative filtering recommendation engine is a type of machine learning system that can improve sales for a company by using the large amount of information the company has on users’ behavior and product preferences to predict which products users would like based on the users’ similarity to other users. A collaborative filtering recommendation engine works by finding the users who have similar ratings or preferences for the products, and then recommending the products that the similar users have liked but the target user has not seen or rated. A collaborative filtering recommendation engine can leverage the collective wisdom of the users and discover the hidden patterns and associations among the products and the users. A collaborative filtering recommendation engine can be implemented using Apache Spark ML on Amazon EMR, which are two services that can handle large-scale data processing and machine learning tasks. Apache Spark ML is a library that provides various tools and algorithms for machine learning, such as classification, regression, clustering, recommendation, etc. Apache Spark ML can run on Amazon EMR, which is a service that provides a managed cluster platform that simplifies running big data frameworks, such as Apache Spark, on AWS. Apache Spark ML on Amazon EMR can build a collaborative filtering recommendation engine using the Alternating Least Squares (ALS) algorithm, which is a matrix factorization technique that can learn the latent factors that represent the users and the products, and then use them to predict the ratings or preferences of the users for the products. Apache Spark ML on Amazon EMR can also support both explicit feedback, such as ratings or reviews, and implicit feedback, such as views or clicks, for building a collaborative filtering recommendation engine12

Option C is correct because augmenting the images in the dataset can help the model learn more features and generalize better to new products. Image augmentation is a common technique to increase the diversity and size of the training data.

Option E is correct because Amazon Rekognition Custom Labels can train a custom model to detect specific objects and scenes that are relevant to the business use case. It can also leverage the existing models from Amazon Rekognition that are trained on tens of millions of images across many categories.

Option F is correct because class imbalance can affect the performance and accuracy of the model, as it can cause the model to be biased towards the majority class and ignore the minority class. Applying oversampling or undersampling can help balance the classes and improve the model’s ability to learn from the data.

Option A is incorrect because the semantic segmentation algorithm is used to assign a label to every pixel in an image, not to classify the whole image into a category. Semantic segmentation is useful for applications such as autonomous driving, medical imaging, and satellite imagery analysis.

Option B is incorrect because the DetectLabels API is a general-purpose image analysis service that can detect objects, scenes, and concepts in an image, but it cannot be customized to the specific product lines of the ecommerce company. The DetectLabels API is based on the pre-trained models from Amazon Rekognition, which may not cover all the categories that the company needs.

Option D is incorrect because normalizing the pixels and scaling the images are preprocessing steps that should be done before training the model, not after. These steps can help improve the model’s convergence and performance, but they are not sufficient to increase the accuracy of the model on new products.

 Image Augmentation - Amazon SageMaker

 Amazon Rekognition Custom Labels Features

[Handling Imbalanced Datasets in Machine Learning]

[Semantic Segmentation - Amazon SageMaker]

[DetectLabels - Amazon Rekognition]

[Image Classification - MXNet - Amazon SageMaker]

[https://towardsdatascience.com/handling-imbalanced-datasets-in-machine-learning-7a0e84220f28]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/semantic-segmentation.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/rekognition/latest/dg/API_DetectLabels.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/image-classification.html]

[https://towardsdatascience.com/handling-imbalanced-datasets-in-machine-learning-7a0e84220f28]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/semantic-segmentation.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/rekognition/latest/dg/API_DetectLabels.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/image-classification.html]

[https://towardsdatascience.com/handling-imbalanced-datasets-in-machine-learning-7a0e84220f28]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/semantic-segmentation.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/rekognition/latest/dg/API_DetectLabels.html]

[https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/image-classification.html]

SageMaker built-in algorithms are optimized to use RecordIO protobuf data format, which significantly improves data transfer and training speeds compared to numpy arrays.

From AWS documentation:

“The Amazon SageMaker built-in algorithms work best with data in the RecordIO protobuf format, which allows for faster data streaming and lower latency during training.”

— AWS SageMaker Algorithm documentation

Since false positives (identifying healthy patients as having the disease) increase costs, the key is to reduce false positives, which is captured by high precision. Precision measures how many positive predictions are actually correct.

From AWS documentation:

“Precision is the ratio of correctly predicted positive observations to the total predicted positive observations. Precision is a good measure to determine when the costs of false positives are high.”

— AWS ML Exam Guide – Evaluation Metrics

Amazon Athena is an interactive query service that allows you to analyze data stored in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. Athena is serverless, so you only pay for the queries that you run and there is no infrastructure to manage.

To optimize the query performance of Athena, one of the best practices is to convert the data into a columnar format, such as Apache Parquet or Apache ORC. Columnar formats store data by columns rather than by rows, which allows Athena to scan only the columns that are relevant to the query, reducing the amount of data read and improving the query speed. Columnar formats also support compression and encoding schemes that can reduce the storage space and the data scanned per query, further enhancing the performance and reducing the cost.

In contrast, plaintext CSV files store data by rows, which means that Athena has to scan the entire row even if only a few columns are needed for the query. This increases the amount of data read and the query latency. Moreover, plaintext CSV files do not support compression or encoding, which means that they take up more storage space and incur higher query costs.

Therefore, the Machine Learning Specialist should transform the dataset to Apache Parquet format to minimize query runtime.

Top 10 Performance Tuning Tips for Amazon Athena

Columnar Storage Formats

Using compressions will reduce the amount of data scanned by Amazon Athena, and also reduce your S3 bucket storage. It’s a Win-Win for your AWS bill. Supported formats: GZIP, LZO, SNAPPY (Parquet) and ZLIB.

The correct solution for granting permissions for data preprocessing is to use the following steps:

Create an IAM role that has permissions to create Amazon SageMaker Processing jobs. Attach the role to the SageMaker notebook instance. This role allows the ML specialist to run Processing jobs from the notebook code1

Create an Amazon SageMaker Processing job with an IAM role that has read and write permissions to the relevant S3 bucket, and appropriate KMS and ECR permissions. This role allows the Processing job to access the data in the encrypted S3 bucket, decrypt it with the KMS CMK, and pull the container image from ECR23

The other options are incorrect because they either miss some permissions or use unnecessary steps. For example:

Option A uses a single IAM role for both the notebook instance and the Processing job. This role may have more permissions than necessary for the notebook instance, which violates the principle of least privilege4

Option C sets up both an S3 endpoint and a KMS endpoint in the default VPC. These endpoints are not required for the Processing job to access the data in the encrypted S3 bucket. They are only needed if the Processing job runs in network isolation mode, which is not specified in the question.

Option D uses the access key and secret key of the IAM user with appropriate KMS and ECR permissions. This is not a secure way to pass credentials to the Processing job. It also requires the ML specialist to manage the IAM user and the keys.

1: Create an Amazon SageMaker Notebook Instance - Amazon SageMaker

2: Create a Processing Job - Amazon SageMaker

3: Use AWS KMS–Managed Encryption Keys - Amazon Simple Storage Service

4: IAM Best Practices - AWS Identity and Access Management

Network Isolation - Amazon SageMaker

Understanding and Getting Your Security Credentials - AWS General Reference

The problem described in the question is a case of underfitting, where the neural network model performs poorly on both the training and validation sets. This means that the model has not learned the features of the data well enough and has high bias. To solve this issue, the machine learning specialist should consider the following change:

Add more data to the training set and retrain the model using transfer learning to reduce the bias: Adding more data to the training set can help the model learn more patterns and variations in the data and improve its performance. Transfer learning can also help the model leverage the knowledge from the pre-trained network and adapt it to the new data. This can reduce the bias and increase the accuracy of the model.

Transfer learning for TensorFlow image classification models in Amazon SageMaker

Transfer learning for custom labels using a TensorFlow container and “bring your own algorithm” in Amazon SageMaker

Machine Learning Concepts - AWS Training and Certification

 The IP Insights algorithm is designed to capture associations between entities and IP addresses, and can be used to identify anomalous IP usage patterns. The algorithm can learn from historical data that contains pairs of entities and IP addresses, and can return a score that indicates how likely the pair is to occur. The company can use this algorithm to train a model that can detect when a customer is accessing the site from a different location than usual, and request additional information accordingly. The company can also schedule updates and retraining of the model using new log data nightly to keep the model up to date with the latest IP usage patterns.

The other options are not suitable for this use case because:

Option A: The factorization machines (FM) algorithm is a general-purpose supervised learning algorithm that can be used for both classification and regression tasks. However, it is not optimized for capturing associations between entities and IP addresses, and would require labeling each record as either a successful or failed access attempt, which is a costly and time-consuming process.

Option C: The IP Insights algorithm is a good choice for this use case, but it does not require labeling each record as either a successful or failed access attempt. The algorithm is unsupervised and can learn from the historical data without labels. Labeling the data would be unnecessary and wasteful.

Option D: The Object2Vec algorithm is a general-purpose neural embedding algorithm that can learn low-dimensional dense embeddings of high-dimensional objects. However, it is not designed to capture associations between entities and IP addresses, and would require a different input format than the one provided by the company. The Object2Vec algorithm expects pairs of objects and their relationship labels or scores as inputs, while the company has data containing the source IP addresses and the login names of the requesting users.

IP Insights - Amazon SageMaker

Factorization Machines Algorithm - Amazon SageMaker

Object2Vec Algorithm - Amazon SageMaker

 To deploy a model that was trained locally to Amazon SageMaker, the steps are:

Build the Docker image with the inference code. The inference code should include the model loading, data preprocessing, prediction, and postprocessing logic. The Docker image should also include the dependencies and libraries required by the inference code and the model.

Tag the Docker image with the registry hostname and upload it to Amazon ECR. Amazon ECR is a fully managed container registry that makes it easy to store, manage, and deploy container images. The registry hostname is the Amazon ECR registry URI for your account and Region. You can use the AWS CLI or the Amazon ECR console to tag and push the Docker image to Amazon ECR.

Create a SageMaker model entity that points to the Docker image in Amazon ECR and the model artifacts in Amazon S3. The model entity is a logical representation of the model that contains the information needed to deploy the model for inference. The model artifacts are the files generated by the model training process, such as the model parameters and weights. You can use the AWS CLI, the SageMaker Python SDK, or the SageMaker console to create the model entity.

Create an endpoint configuration that specifies the instance type and number of instances to use for hosting the model. The endpoint configuration also defines the production variants, which are the different versions of the model that you want to deploy. You can use the AWS CLI, the SageMaker Python SDK, or the SageMaker console to create the endpoint configuration.

Create an endpoint that uses the endpoint configuration to deploy the model. The endpoint is a web service that exposes an HTTP API for inference requests. You can use the AWS CLI, the SageMaker Python SDK, or the SageMaker console to create the endpoint.

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training - Deploy a Model on Amazon SageMaker

AWS Machine Learning Training - Use Your Own Inference Code with Amazon SageMaker Hosting Services

The Hyperband tuning strategy is a multi-fidelity based tuning strategy that dynamically reallocates resources to the most promising hyperparameter configurations. Hyperband uses both intermediate and final results of training jobs to stop under-performing jobs and reallocate epochs to well-utilized hyperparameter configurations. Hyperband can provide up to three times faster hyperparameter tuning compared to other strategies1. Setting a lower value for the MaxNumberOfTrainingJobs parameter can also reduce the computation time for the hyperparameter tuning job by limiting the number of training jobs that the tuning job can launch. This can help avoid unnecessary or redundant training jobs that do not improve the objective metric.

The other options are not effective ways to reduce the computation time for the hyperparameter tuning job. Increasing the number of hyperparameters will increase the complexity and dimensionality of the search space, which can result in longer computation time and lower performance. Using the grid search tuning strategy will also increase the computation time, as grid search methodically searches through every combination of hyperparameter values, which can be very expensive and inefficient for large search spaces. Setting a lower value for the MaxParallelTrainingJobs parameter will reduce the number of training jobs that can run in parallel, which can slow down the tuning process and increase the waiting time.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimensionality reduction technique that captures the variance within the feature space, helping to understand the directions in which data varies most. In SageMaker Data Wrangler, the multicollinearity measurement and PCA features allow the data scientist to analyze interdependencies between predictor variables while reducing redundancy. PCA transforms correlated features into a set of uncorrelated components, helping to simplify the dataset without significant loss of information, making it ideal for refining features based on variance.

Options A and D offer methods to understand feature relevance but are less effective for managing multicollinearity and variance representation in the data.

The best way to meet the requirements is to use a principal component analysis (PCA) model, which is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the dataset by transforming the original variables into a smaller set of new variables, called principal components, that capture most of the variance and information in the data1. This technique has the following advantages:

It can increase the accuracy of the model by removing noise, redundancy, and multicollinearity from the data, and by enhancing the interpretability and generalization of the model23.

It can decrease the processing time of the model by reducing the number of features and the computational complexity of the model, and by improving the convergence and stability of the model45.

It is suitable for numeric variables, as it relies on the covariance or correlation matrix of the data, and it can handle a large quantity of variables, as it can extract the most relevant ones16.

The other options are not effective or appropriate, because they have the following drawbacks:

A: Creating new features and interaction variables can increase the accuracy of the model by capturing more complex and nonlinear relationships in the data, but it can also increase the processing time of the model by adding more features and increasing the computational complexity of the model7. Moreover, it can introduce more noise, redundancy, and multicollinearity in the data, which can degrade the performance and interpretability of the model8.

C: Applying normalization on the feature set can increase the accuracy of the model by scaling the features to a common range and avoiding the dominance of some features over others, but it can also decrease the processing time of the model by reducing the numerical instability and improving the convergence of the model . However, normalization alone is not enough to address the high dimensionality and high latency issues of the dataset, as it does not reduce the number of features or the variance in the data.

D: Using a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) model is not suitable for numeric variables, as it is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the dataset by transforming the original categorical variables into a smaller set of new variables, called factors, that capture most of the inertia and information in the data. MCA is similar to PCA, but it is designed for nominal or ordinal variables, not for continuous or interval variables.

1: Principal Component Analysis - Amazon SageMaker

2: How to Use PCA for Data Visualization and Improved Performance in Machine Learning | by Pratik Shukla | Towards Data Science

3: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for Feature Selection and some of its Pitfalls | by Nagesh Singh Chauhan | Towards Data Science

4: How to Reduce Dimensionality with PCA and Train a Support Vector Machine in Python | by James Briggs | Towards Data Science

5: Dimensionality Reduction and Its Applications | by Aniruddha Bhandari | Towards Data Science

6: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in Python | by Susan Li | Towards Data Science

7: Feature Engineering for Machine Learning | by Dipanjan (DJ) Sarkar | Towards Data Science

8: Feature Engineering — How to Engineer Features and How to Get Good at It | by Parul Pandey | Towards Data Science

[Feature Scaling for Machine Learning: Understanding the Difference Between Normalization vs. Standardization | by Benjamin Obi Tayo Ph.D. | Towards Data Science]

[Why, How and When to Scale your Features | by George Seif | Towards Data Science]

[Normalization vs Dimensionality Reduction | by Saurabh Annadate | Towards Data Science]

[Multiple Correspondence Analysis - Amazon SageMaker]

[Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) | by Raul Eulogio | Towards Data Science]

To log Amazon SageMaker API calls, the team can use AWS CloudTrail, which is a service that provides a record of actions taken by a user, role, or an AWS service in SageMaker1. CloudTrail captures all API calls for SageMaker, with the exception of InvokeEndpoint and InvokeEndpointAsync, as events1. The calls captured include calls from the SageMaker console and code calls to the SageMaker API operations1. The team can create a trail to enable continuous delivery of CloudTrail events to an Amazon S3 bucket, and configure other AWS services to further analyze and act upon the event data collected in CloudTrail logs1. The auditors can view the CloudTrail log activity report in the CloudTrail console or download the log files from the S3 bucket1.

To receive a notification when the model is overfitting, the team can add code to push a custom metric to Amazon CloudWatch, which is a service that provides monitoring and observability for AWS resources and applications2. The team can use the MXNet metric API to define and compute the custom metric, such as the validation accuracy or the validation loss, and use the boto3 CloudWatch client to put the metric data to CloudWatch3 . The team can then create an alarm in CloudWatch with Amazon SNS to receive a notification when the custom metric crosses a threshold that indicates overfitting . For example, the team can set the alarm to trigger when the validation loss increases for a certain number of consecutive periods, which means the model is learning the noise in the training data and not generalizing well to the validation data.

1: Log Amazon SageMaker API Calls with AWS CloudTrail - Amazon SageMaker

2: What Is Amazon CloudWatch? - Amazon CloudWatch

3: Metric API — Apache MXNet documentation

CloudWatch — Boto 3 Docs 1.20.21 documentation

Creating Amazon CloudWatch Alarms - Amazon CloudWatch

What is Amazon Simple Notification Service? - Amazon Simple Notification Service

Overfitting and Underfitting - Machine Learning Crash Course

The solution that the agency should consider is to use a proxy server at each local office and for each camera, and stream the RTSP feed to a unique Amazon Kinesis Video Streams video stream. On each stream, use Amazon Rekognition Video and create a stream processor to detect faces from a collection of known employees, and alert when non-employees are detected.

This solution has the following advantages:

It can handle thousands of video cameras in real time, as Amazon Kinesis Video Streams can scale elastically to support any number of producers and consumers1.

It can leverage the Amazon Rekognition Video API, which is designed and optimized for video analysis, and can detect faces in challenging conditions such as low lighting, occlusions, and different poses2.

It can use a stream processor, which is a feature of Amazon Rekognition Video that allows you to create a persistent application that analyzes streaming video and stores the results in a Kinesis data stream3. The stream processor can compare the detected faces with a collection of known employees, which is a container for persisting faces that you want to search for in the input video stream4. The stream processor can also send notifications to Amazon Simple Notification Service (Amazon SNS) when non-employees are detected, which can trigger downstream actions such as sending alerts or storing the events in Amazon Elasticsearch Service (Amazon ES)3.

1: What Is Amazon Kinesis Video Streams? - Amazon Kinesis Video Streams

2: Detecting and Analyzing Faces - Amazon Rekognition

3: Using Amazon Rekognition Video Stream Processor - Amazon Rekognition

4: Working with Stored Faces - Amazon Rekognition

A stratified k-fold cross-validation strategy is a technique that preserves the class distribution in each fold. This is important for imbalanced datasets, such as the one in the question, where the disease is seen in only 3% of the population. If a random k-fold cross-validation strategy is used, some folds may have no positive cases or very few, which would lead to poor estimates of the model performance. A stratified k-fold cross-validation strategy ensures that each fold has the same proportion of positive and negative cases as the whole dataset, which makes the evaluation more reliable and robust. A k-fold cross-validation strategy with k=5 and 3 repeats is also a possible option, but it is more computationally expensive and may not be necessary if the stratification is done properly. An 80/20 stratified split between training and validation is another option, but it uses less data for training and validation than k-fold cross-validation, which may result in higher variance and lower accuracy of the estimates. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Certification Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training: Model Evaluation

How to Fix k-Fold Cross-Validation for Imbalanced Classification

Serverless inference in SageMaker is designed for workloads with intermittent traffic and unpredictable usage patterns, which aligns with the media company's periodic high-traffic windows. Because the payload is less than 4 MB (serverless inference supports payloads up to 4 MB), serverless inference is appropriate and provisioned concurrency ensures the endpoints are warm and ready during peak times to minimize latency.

From AWS documentation:

“Amazon SageMaker Serverless Inference is ideal for applications with intermittent or unpredictable traffic. You can optionally enable provisioned concurrency to ensure that your endpoints are always ready to process requests during anticipated peak traffic hours.”

— AWS SageMaker Serverless Inference documentation

Using real-time inference with auto scaling (A) incurs a higher cost as it requires always-on instances. Batch transform (D) is for offline, large-scale inferences, not low-latency real-time inference. Asynchronous inference (C) is typically used for large payloads (>4 MB) or long processing times.

 In this scenario, the specialist should use one-hot encoding and RGB encoding to allow the regression model to learn from the Wall_Color data. One-hot encoding is a technique used to convert categorical data into numerical data. It creates new columns that store one-hot representation of colors. For example, a variable named color has three categories: red, green, and blue. After one-hot encoding, the new variables should be like this:

One-hot encoding can capture the presence or absence of a color, but it cannot capture the intensity or hue of a color. RGB encoding is a technique used to represent colors in a digital image. It creates three columns to encode the color in RGB format. For example, a variable named color has three categories: red, green, and blue. After RGB encoding, the new variables should be like this:

RGB encoding can capture the intensity and hue of a color, but it may also introduce correlation among the three columns. Therefore, using both one-hot encoding and RGB encoding can provide more information to the regression model than using either one alone.

Feature Engineering for Categorical Data

How to Perform Feature Selection with Categorical Data

The problem involves assigning multiple related, non-mutually exclusive categories (like "yogurt", "snack", and "dairy product") to customer comments referencing specific products. Amazon Comprehend provides custom classification capabilities, and in this case, the appropriate mode is multi-label, not multi-class.

“Use multi-label mode when each document can belong to more than one class. This is appropriate for situations where the categories are not mutually exclusive.”

This allows a single document to be tagged with several relevant labels simultaneously, which is precisely the use case described.

The best solution for text extraction and entity detection with the least amount of effort is to use Amazon Textract and Amazon Comprehend. These services are:

Amazon Textract for text extraction from receipt images. Amazon Textract is a machine learning service that can automatically extract text and data from scanned documents. It can handle different structures and formats of documents, such as PDF, TIFF, PNG, and JPEG, without any preprocessing steps. It can also extract key-value pairs and tables from documents1

Amazon Comprehend for entity detection and custom entity detection. Amazon Comprehend is a natural language processing service that can identify entities, such as dates, locations, and notes, from unstructured text. It can also detect custom entities, such as receipt numbers, by using a custom entity recognizer that can be trained with a small amount of labeled data2

The other options are not suitable because they either require more effort for text extraction, entity detection, or custom entity detection. For example:

Option A uses the Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm to train on the text for entities and custom entities. BlazingText is a supervised learning algorithm that can perform text classification and word2vec. It requires users to provide a large amount of labeled data, preprocess the data into a specific format, and tune the hyperparameters of the model3

Option B uses a deep learning OCR model from the AWS Marketplace and a NER deep learning model for text extraction and entity detection. These models are pre-trained and may not be suitable for the specific use case of receipt processing. They also require users to deploy and manage the models on Amazon SageMaker or Amazon EC2 instances4

Option D uses a deep learning OCR model from the AWS Marketplace for text extraction. This model has the same drawbacks as option B. It also requires users to integrate the model output with Amazon Comprehend for entity detection and custom entity detection.

1: Amazon Textract – Extract text and data from documents

2: Amazon Comprehend – Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine Learning (ML)

3: BlazingText - Amazon SageMaker

4: AWS Marketplace: OCR

The machine learning model in this scenario shows signs of overfitting, as evidenced by better performance on the training dataset than on the testing dataset. Overfitting indicates that the model is capturing noise or details specific to the training data rather than general patterns.

One common approach to reduce overfitting is L2 regularization, which adds a penalty to the loss function for large weights and helps the model generalize better by smoothing out the weight distribution. By increasing the value of the L2 hyperparameter, the ML specialist can increase this penalty, helping to mitigate overfitting and improve performance on the testing dataset.

Options like increasing momentum or reducing dropout are less effective for addressing overfitting in this context.

The most secure action to protect the data from being accessed and transferred to a remote host by malicious code accidentally installed on the training container is to enable network isolation for training jobs. Network isolation is a feature that allows you to run training and inference containers in internet-free mode, which blocks any outbound network calls from the containers, even to other AWS services such as Amazon S3. Additionally, no AWS credentials are made available to the container runtime environment. This way, you can prevent unauthorized access to your data and resources by malicious code or users. You can enable network isolation by setting the EnableNetworkIsolation parameter to True when you call CreateTrainingJob, CreateHyperParameterTuningJob, or CreateModel.

Run Training and Inference Containers in Internet-Free Mode - Amazon SageMaker

The solution C will improve the computational efficiency of the models because it uses Amazon SageMaker Debugger and pruning, which are techniques that can reduce the size and complexity of the convolutional neural network (CNN) models. The solution C involves the following steps:

Use Amazon SageMaker Debugger to gain visibility into the training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs. Amazon SageMaker Debugger is a service that can capture and analyze the tensors that are emitted during the training process of machine learning models. Amazon SageMaker Debugger can provide insights into the model performance, quality, and convergence. Amazon SageMaker Debugger can also help to identify and diagnose issues such as overfitting, underfitting, vanishing gradients, and exploding gradients1.

Compute the filter ranks based on the training information. Filter ranking is a technique that can measure the importance of each filter in a convolutional layer based on some criterion, such as the average percentage of zero activations or the L1-norm of the filter weights. Filter ranking can help to identify the filters that have little or no contribution to the model output, and thus can be removed without affecting the model accuracy2.

Apply pruning to remove the low-ranking filters. Pruning is a technique that can reduce the size and complexity of a neural network by removing the redundant or irrelevant parts of the network, such as neurons, connections, or filters. Pruning can help to improve the computational efficiency, memory usage, and inference speed of the model, as well as to prevent overfitting and improve generalization3.

Set the new weights based on the pruned set of filters. After pruning, the model will have a smaller and simpler architecture, with fewer filters in each convolutional layer. The new weights of the model can be set based on the pruned set of filters, either by initializing them randomly or by fine-tuning them from the original weights4.

Run a new training job with the pruned model. The pruned model can be trained again with the same or a different dataset, using the same or a different framework or algorithm. The new training job can use the same or a different configuration of Amazon SageMaker, such as the instance type, the hyperparameters, or the data ingestion mode. The new training job can also use Amazon SageMaker Debugger to monitor and analyze the training process and the model quality5.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Using Amazon CloudWatch metrics to gain visibility into the SageMaker training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs will not be as effective as using Amazon SageMaker Debugger. Amazon CloudWatch is a service that can monitor and observe the operational health and performance of AWS resources and applications. Amazon CloudWatch can provide metrics, alarms, dashboards, and logs for various AWS services, including Amazon SageMaker. However, Amazon CloudWatch does not provide the same level of granularity and detail as Amazon SageMaker Debugger for the tensors that are emitted during the training process of machine learning models. Amazon CloudWatch metrics are mainly focused on the resource utilization and the training progress, not on the model performance, quality, and convergence6.

Option B: Using Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth to build and run data labeling workflows and collecting a larger labeled dataset with the labeling workflows will not improve the computational efficiency of the models. Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth is a service that can create high-quality training datasets for machine learning by using human labelers. A larger labeled dataset can help to improve the model accuracy and generalization, but it will not reduce the memory, battery, and hardware consumption of the model. Moreover, a larger labeled dataset may increase the training time and cost of the model7.

Option D: Using Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor to gain visibility into the ModelLatency metric and OverheadLatency metric of the model after the company deploys the model and increasing the model learning rate will not improve the computational efficiency of the models. Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor is a service that can monitor and analyze the quality and performance of machine learning models that are deployed on Amazon SageMaker endpoints. The ModelLatency metric and the OverheadLatency metric can measure the inference latency of the model and the endpoint, respectively. However, these metrics do not provide any information about the training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs of the model, which are needed for pruning. Moreover, increasing the model learning rate will not reduce the size and complexity of the model, but it may affect the model convergence and accuracy.

1: Amazon SageMaker Debugger

2: Pruning Convolutional Neural Networks for Resource Efficient Inference

3: Pruning Neural Networks: A Survey

4: Learning both Weights and Connections for Efficient Neural Networks

5: Amazon SageMaker Training Jobs

6: Amazon CloudWatch Metrics for Amazon SageMaker

7: Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth

Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor

The Recordio protobuf format is a binary data format that is optimized for training on SageMaker. It allows faster data loading and lower memory usage compared to other formats such as CSV or numpy arrays. The Recordio protobuf format also supports features such as sparse input, variable-length input, and label embedding. To use the Recordio protobuf format, the data needs to be serialized and deserialized using the appropriate libraries. Some of the built-in algorithms in SageMaker support the Recordio protobuf format as a content type for training and inference. References:

Common Data Formats for Training

Using RecordIO Format

Content Types Supported by Built-in Algorithms

To develop a daily ETL workflow containing multiple ETL jobs that can start as soon as data is uploaded to Amazon S3, the best configuration is to use AWS Lambda to trigger an AWS Step Functions workflow to wait for dataset uploads to complete in Amazon S3. Use AWS Glue to join the datasets. Use an Amazon CloudWatch alarm to send an SNS notification to the Administrator in the case of a failure.

AWS Lambda is a serverless compute service that lets you run code without provisioning or managing servers. You can use Lambda to create functions that respond to events such as data uploads to Amazon S3. You can also use Lambda to invoke other AWS services such as AWS Step Functions and AWS Glue.

AWS Step Functions is a service that lets you coordinate multiple AWS services into serverless workflows. You can use Step Functions to create a state machine that defines the sequence and logic of your ETL workflow. You can also use Step Functions to handle errors and retries, and to monitor the execution status of your workflow.

AWS Glue is a serverless data integration service that makes it easy to discover, prepare, and combine data for analytics. You can use Glue to create and run ETL jobs that can join data from multiple sources in Amazon S3. You can also use Glue to catalog your data and make it searchable and queryable.

Amazon CloudWatch is a service that monitors your AWS resources and applications. You can use CloudWatch to create alarms that trigger actions when a metric or a log event meets a specified threshold. You can also use CloudWatch to send notifications to Amazon Simple Notification Service (SNS) topics, which can then deliver the notifications to subscribers such as email addresses or phone numbers.

Therefore, by using these services together, you can achieve the following benefits:

You can start the ETL workflow as soon as data is uploaded to Amazon S3 by using Lambda functions to trigger Step Functions workflows.

You can wait for all the datasets to be available in Amazon S3 by using Step Functions to poll the S3 buckets and check the data completeness.

You can join the datasets with terabyte-sized datasets in Amazon S3 by using Glue ETL jobs that can scale and parallelize the data processing.

You can store the results of joining datasets in Amazon S3 by using Glue ETL jobs to write the output to S3 buckets.

You can send a notification to the Administrator if one of the jobs fails by using CloudWatch alarms to monitor the Step Functions or Glue metrics and send SNS notifications in case of a failure.

For a repository containing a large and dynamically scaling collection of images, Amazon S3 is ideal due to its scalability and versioning capabilities. Amazon S3 natively supports automatic scaling to accommodate increasing storage needs and allows versioning, which enables tracking and managing different versions of objects.

To meet the requirement of maintaining multiple, immediately accessible copies of data across AWS Regions, S3 Cross-Region Replication (CRR) can be enabled. CRR automatically replicates new or updated objects to a specified destination bucket in another AWS Region, ensuring low-latency access and disaster recovery. By setting up CRR with versioning enabled, the data scientist can achieve a multi-Region, scalable, and version-controlled repository in Amazon S3.

A naive Bayesian model assumes that the features are conditionally independent given the class label. This means that the joint probability of the features and the class can be factorized as the product of the class prior and the feature likelihoods. A full Bayesian network, on the other hand, does not make this assumption and allows for modeling arbitrary dependencies between the features and the class using a directed acyclic graph. In this case, the joint probability of the features and the class is given by the product of the conditional probabilities of each node given its parents in the graph. If the features are statistically dependent, meaning that their correlation coefficients are not close to zero, then a naive Bayesian model would not capture these dependencies and would likely perform worse than a full Bayesian network that can account for them. Therefore, a full Bayesian network describes the underlying data better in this situation. References:

Naive Bayes and Text Classification I

Bayesian Networks

Linear least squares regression is a method of fitting a linear model to a set of data by minimizing the sum of squared errors between the observed and predicted values. The solution of the linear least squares problem can be obtained by solving the normal equations, which are given by

ATAx=ATb,

where A is the matrix of explanatory variables, b is the vector of response variables, and x is the vector of unknown coefficients.

However, if the matrix A has two features that are perfectly linearly dependent, then the matrix ATA will be singular, meaning that it does not have a unique inverse. This implies that the normal equations do not have a unique solution, and the linear least squares problem is ill-posed. In other words, there are infinitely many values of x that can satisfy the normal equations, and the linear model is not identifiable.

This can be an issue for the linear least squares regression model, as it can lead to instability, inconsistency, and poor generalization of the model. It can also cause numerical difficulties when trying to solve the normal equations using computational methods, such as matrix inversion or decomposition. Therefore, it is advisable to avoid or remove the linearly dependent features from the matrix A before applying the linear least squares regression model.

Linear least squares (mathematics)

Linear Regression in Matrix Form

Singular Matrix Problem

According to the Amazon Kinesis Data Streams documentation, the maximum size of data blob (the data payload before Base64-encoding) per record is 1 MB. The maximum number of records that can be sent to a shard per second is 1,000. Therefore, the maximum throughput of a shard is 1 MB/sec for input and 2 MB/sec for output. In this case, the input throughput is 100 transactions per second * 100 KB per transaction = 10 MB/sec. Therefore, the minimum number of shards required is 10 MB/sec / 1 MB/sec = 10 shards. However, the question asks for the minimum number of shards in Kinesis Data Streams, not the minimum number of shards per stream. A Kinesis Data Streams account can have multiple streams, each with its own number of shards. Therefore, the minimum number of shards in Kinesis Data Streams is 1, which is the minimum number of shards per stream. References:

Amazon Kinesis Data Streams Terminology and Concepts

Amazon Kinesis Data Streams Limits

 The best solution for building a line-counting application for use in a quick-service restaurant is to use the following steps:

Build a custom model in Amazon SageMaker to recognize the number of people in an image. Amazon SageMaker is a fully managed service that provides tools and workflows for building, training, and deploying machine learning models. A custom model can be tailored to the specific use case of line-counting and achieve higher accuracy than a generic model1

Deploy AWS DeepLens cameras in the restaurant to capture video. AWS DeepLens is a wireless video camera that integrates with Amazon SageMaker and AWS Lambda. It can run machine learning inference locally on the device without requiring internet connectivity or streaming video to the cloud. This reduces the bandwidth consumption and latency of the application2

Deploy the model to the cameras. AWS DeepLens allows users to deploy trained models from Amazon SageMaker to the cameras with a few clicks. The cameras can then use the model to process the video frames and count the number of people in each frame2

Deploy an AWS Lambda function to the cameras to use the model to count people and send an Amazon Simple Notification Service (Amazon SNS) notification if the line is too long. AWS Lambda is a serverless computing service that lets users run code without provisioning or managing servers. AWS DeepLens supports running Lambda functions on the device to perform actions based on the inference results. Amazon SNS is a service that enables users to send notifications to subscribers via email, SMS, or mobile push23

The other options are incorrect because they either require internet connectivity or streaming video to the cloud, which may impact the bandwidth and performance of the application. For example:

Option A uses Amazon Kinesis Video Streams to stream the data to AWS over the restaurant’s existing internet connection. Amazon Kinesis Video Streams is a service that enables users to capture, process, and store video streams for analytics and machine learning. However, this option requires streaming multiple video streams to the cloud, which may consume a lot of bandwidth and cause network congestion. It also requires internet connectivity, which may not be reliable or available in some locations4

Option B uses Amazon Rekognition on the AWS DeepLens device. Amazon Rekognition is a service that provides computer vision capabilities, such as face detection, face recognition, and object detection. However, this option requires calling the Amazon Rekognition API over the internet, which may introduce latency and require bandwidth. It also uses a generic face detection model, which may not be optimized for the line-counting use case.

Option C uses Amazon SageMaker to build a custom model and an Amazon SageMaker endpoint to call the model. Amazon SageMaker endpoints are hosted web services that allow users to perform inference on their models. However, this option requires sending the images to the endpoint over the internet, which may consume bandwidth and introduce latency. It also requires internet connectivity, which may not be reliable or available in some locations.

1: Amazon SageMaker – Machine Learning Service - AWS

2: AWS DeepLens - Deep learning enabled video camera - AWS

3: Amazon Simple Notification Service (SNS) - AWS

4: Amazon Kinesis Video Streams - Amazon Web Services

Amazon Rekognition – Video and Image - AWS

Deploy a Model - Amazon SageMaker

 Transfer learning is a technique that allows us to use a model trained for a certain task as a starting point for a machine learning model for a different task. For image classification, a common practice is to use a pre-trained model that was trained on a large and general dataset, such as ImageNet, and then customize it for the specific task. One way to customize the model is to replace the last fully connected layer, which is responsible for the final classification, with a new layer that has the same number of units as the number of classes in the new task. This way, the model can leverage the features learned by the previous layers, which are generic and useful for many image recognition tasks, and learn to map them to the new classes. The new layer can be initialized with random weights, and the rest of the model can be initialized with the pre-trained weights. This method is also known as feature extraction, as it extracts meaningful features from the pre-trained model and uses them for the new task. References:

Transfer learning and fine-tuning

Deep transfer learning for image classification: a survey

The combination of steps that the data scientist must take to perform the A/B testing are to create a new endpoint configuration that includes a production variant for each of the two models, and update the existing endpoint to use the new endpoint configuration. This approach will allow the data scientist to deploy both models on the same endpoint and split the inference traffic between them based on a specified distribution.

Amazon SageMaker is a fully managed service that provides developers and data scientists the ability to quickly build, train, and deploy machine learning models. Amazon SageMaker supports A/B testing on machine learning models by allowing the data scientist to run multiple production variants on an endpoint. A production variant is a version of a model that is deployed on an endpoint. Each production variant has a name, a machine learning model, an instance type, an initial instance count, and an initial weight. The initial weight determines the percentage of inference requests that the variant will handle. For example, if there are two variants with weights of 0.5 and 0.5, each variant will handle 50% of the requests. The data scientist can use production variants to test models that have been trained using different training datasets, algorithms, and machine learning frameworks; test how they perform on different instance types; or a combination of all of the above1.

To perform A/B testing on machine learning models, the data scientist needs to create a new endpoint configuration that includes a production variant for each of the two models. An endpoint configuration is a collection of settings that define the properties of an endpoint, such as the name, the production variants, and the data capture configuration. The data scientist can use the Amazon SageMaker console, the AWS CLI, or the AWS SDKs to create a new endpoint configuration. The data scientist needs to specify the name, model name, instance type, initial instance count, and initial variant weight for each production variant in the endpoint configuration2.

After creating the new endpoint configuration, the data scientist needs to update the existing endpoint to use the new endpoint configuration. Updating an endpoint is the process of deploying a new endpoint configuration to an existing endpoint. Updating an endpoint does not affect the availability or scalability of the endpoint, as Amazon SageMaker creates a new endpoint instance with the new configuration and switches the DNS record to point to the new instance when it is ready. The data scientist can use the Amazon SageMaker console, the AWS CLI, or the AWS SDKs to update an endpoint. The data scientist needs to specify the name of the endpoint and the name of the new endpoint configuration to update the endpoint3.

The other options are either incorrect or unnecessary. Creating a new endpoint configuration that includes two target variants that point to different endpoints is not possible, as target variants are only used to invoke a specific variant on an endpoint, not to define an endpoint configuration. Deploying the new model to the existing endpoint would replace the existing model, not run it side-by-side with the new model. Updating the existing endpoint to activate the new model is not a valid operation, as there is no activation parameter for an endpoint.

1: A/B Testing ML models in production using Amazon SageMaker | AWS Machine Learning Blog

2: Create an Endpoint Configuration - Amazon SageMaker

3: Update an Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker

The approach that will meet the requirements with the least operational overhead is to deploy all the models to a single SageMaker endpoint, treat each model as a production variant, configure an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, and configure the Lambda function to call each production variant and return the results of each model. This approach involves the following steps:

Deploy all the models to a single SageMaker endpoint. Amazon SageMaker is a service that can build, train, and deploy machine learning models. Amazon SageMaker can deploy multiple models to a single endpoint, which is a web service that can serve predictions from the models. Each model can be treated as a production variant, which is a version of the model that runs on one or more instances. Amazon SageMaker can distribute the traffic among the production variants according to the specified weights1.

Treat each model as a production variant. Amazon SageMaker can deploy multiple models to a single endpoint, which is a web service that can serve predictions from the models. Each model can be treated as a production variant, which is a version of the model that runs on one or more instances. Amazon SageMaker can distribute the traffic among the production variants according to the specified weights1.

Configure an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created. Amazon S3 is a service that can store and retrieve any amount of data. Amazon S3 can send event notifications when certain actions occur on the objects in a bucket, such as object creation, deletion, or modification. Amazon S3 can invoke an AWS Lambda function as a destination for the event notifications. AWS Lambda is a service that can run code without provisioning or managing servers2.

Configure the Lambda function to call each production variant and return the results of each model. AWS Lambda can execute the code that can call the SageMaker endpoint and specify the production variant to invoke. AWS Lambda can use the AWS SDK or the SageMaker Runtime API to send requests to the endpoint and receive the predictions from the models. AWS Lambda can return the results of each model as a response to the event notification3.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Configuring an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, configuring the Lambda function to create three SageMaker batch transform jobs, one batch transform job for each model for each document, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint. Amazon SageMaker batch transform is a service that can process large datasets in batches and store the predictions in Amazon S3. Amazon SageMaker batch transform is not suitable for real-time inference, as it introduces a delay between the request and the response. Moreover, creating three batch transform jobs for each document will increase the complexity and cost of the solution4.

Option C: Deploying each model to its own SageMaker endpoint, configuring an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, configuring the Lambda function to call each endpoint and return the results of each model, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint. Deploying each model to its own endpoint will increase the number of resources and endpoints to manage and monitor. Moreover, calling each endpoint separately will increase the latency and network traffic of the solution5.

Option D: Deploying each model to its own SageMaker endpoint, creating three AWS Lambda functions, configuring each Lambda function to call a different endpoint and return the results, configuring three S3 event notifications to invoke the Lambda functions when new documents are created, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint and a single Lambda function. Deploying each model to its own endpoint will increase the number of resources and endpoints to manage and monitor. Creating three Lambda functions will increase the complexity and cost of the solution. Configuring three S3 event notifications will increase the number of triggers and destinations to manage and monitor6.

1: Deploying Multiple Models to a Single Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker

2: Configuring Amazon S3 Event Notifications - Amazon Simple Storage Service

3: Invoke an Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker

4: Get Inferences for an Entire Dataset with Batch Transform - Amazon SageMaker

5: Deploy a Model - Amazon SageMaker

6: AWS Lambda

Residuals are the differences between the actual and predicted values of the target variable in a regression model. A histogram of residuals is a graphical tool that can help evaluate the performance and assumptions of the model. Ideally, the histogram of residuals should have a zero-centered bell shape, which indicates that the residuals are normally distributed with a mean of zero and a constant variance. This means that the model has captured the true relationship between the input and output variables, and that the errors are random and unbiased. However, if the histogram of residuals does not have a zero-centered bell shape, as shown in the image, this means that the model might have prediction errors over a range of target values. This is because the residuals do not form a symmetrical and homogeneous distribution around zero, which implies that the model has some systematic bias or heteroscedasticity. This can affect the accuracy and validity of the model, and indicate that the model needs to be improved or modified.

Residual Analysis in Regression - Statistics By Jim

How to Check Residual Plots for Regression Analysis - dummies

Histogram of Residuals - Statistics How To

Amazon CloudWatch is a service that can monitor and collect various metrics and logs from AWS resources, such as Amazon SageMaker. Amazon CloudWatch can also generate dashboards to create a single view for the metrics and logs that are of interest. By using Amazon CloudWatch, the Machine Learning Specialist can review the latency, memory utilization, and CPU utilization during the load test, as these are some of the metrics that are outputted by Amazon SageMaker. The Specialist can create a custom dashboard that displays these metrics in different widgets, such as graphs, tables, or text. The dashboard can also be configured to refresh automatically and show the latest data as the load test is running. This approach will allow the Specialist to monitor the performance and resource utilization of the model variant and adjust the Auto Scaling configuration accordingly.

[Monitoring Amazon SageMaker with Amazon CloudWatch - Amazon SageMaker]

[Using Amazon CloudWatch Dashboards - Amazon CloudWatch]

[Create a CloudWatch Dashboard - Amazon CloudWatch]

To secure calls to the Amazon SageMaker Service API, the ML specialist should take the following steps:

Modify the security group on the endpoint network interface to restrict access to the instances. This will allow the ML specialist to control which instances in the VPC can communicate with the VPC interface endpoint for the Amazon SageMaker Service API. The security group can specify inbound and outbound rules based on the instance IDs, IP addresses, or CIDR blocks1.

Add a SageMaker Runtime VPC endpoint interface to the VPC. This will allow the ML specialist to invoke the SageMaker endpoints from within the VPC without using the public internet. The SageMaker Runtime VPC endpoint interface connects the VPC directly to the SageMaker Runtime using AWS PrivateLink2.

The other options are not as effective or necessary as the steps above. Adding a VPC endpoint policy to allow access to the IAM users is not required, as the IAM users can already access the Amazon SageMaker Service API through the VPC interface endpoint. Modifying the users’ IAM policy to allow access to Amazon SageMaker Service API calls only is not sufficient, as it does not prevent unauthorized instances from accessing the VPC interface endpoint. Modifying the ACL on the endpoint network interface to restrict access to the instances is not possible, as network ACLs are associated with subnets, not network interfaces3.

Security groups for your VPC - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Connect to SageMaker Within your VPC - Amazon SageMaker

Network ACLs - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Linear regression is a machine learning approach that can be used to solve this problem. Linear regression is a supervised learning technique that can model the relationship between one or more input variables (features) and an output variable (target). In this case, the input variables could be the historical sales data of the part, such as the quarter, the demand, the price, the inventory, etc. The output variable could be the number of units to be produced for the part. Linear regression can learn the coefficients (weights) of the input variables that best fit the output variable, and then use them to make predictions for new data. Linear regression is suitable for problems that involve continuous and numeric output variables, such as predicting house prices, stock prices, or sales volumes. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

Linear Regression

 The solution A will meet the requirements with the most operational efficiency because it uses Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler, which is a service that simplifies the process of data preparation and feature engineering for machine learning. The solution A involves the following steps:

Use Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler preconfigured transformations to explore feature transformations. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler provides a visual interface that allows data scientists to apply various transformations to their tabular data, such as encoding categorical features, scaling numerical features, imputing missing values, and more. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler also supports custom transformations using Python code or SQL queries1.

Use SageMaker Data Wrangler templates for visualization. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler also provides a set of templates that can generate visualizations of the data, such as histograms, scatter plots, box plots, and more. These visualizations can help data scientists to understand the distribution and characteristics of the data, and to compare the effects of different feature transformations1.

Export the feature processing workflow to a SageMaker pipeline for automation. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler can export the feature processing workflow as a SageMaker pipeline, which is a service that orchestrates and automates machine learning workflows. A SageMaker pipeline can run the feature processing steps as a preprocessing step, and then feed the output to a training step or an inference step. This can reduce the operational overhead of managing the feature processing workflow and ensure its consistency and reproducibility2.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option B: Using an Amazon SageMaker notebook instance to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, and packaging the feature processing steps into an AWS Lambda function for automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. The data scientist will have to write the code for the feature transformations, the data storage, the data visualization, and the Lambda function. Moreover, AWS Lambda has limitations on the execution time, memory size, and package size, which may not be sufficient for complex feature processing tasks3.

Option C: Using AWS Glue Studio with custom code to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, and packaging the feature processing steps into an AWS Lambda function for automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. AWS Glue Studio is a visual interface that allows data engineers to create and run extract, transform, and load (ETL) jobs on AWS Glue. However, AWS Glue Studio does not provide preconfigured transformations or templates for feature engineering or data visualization. The data scientist will have to write custom code for these tasks, as well as for the Lambda function. Moreover, AWS Glue Studio is not integrated with SageMaker pipelines, and it may not be optimized for machine learning workflows4.

Option D: Using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler preconfigured transformations to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, packaging each feature transformation step into a separate AWS Lambda function, and using AWS Step Functions for workflow automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. The data scientist will have to create and manage multiple AWS Lambda functions and AWS Step Functions, which can increase the complexity and cost of the solution. Moreover, AWS Lambda and AWS Step Functions may not be compatible with SageMaker pipelines, and they may not be optimized for machine learning workflows5.

1: Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler

2: Amazon SageMaker Pipelines

3: AWS Lambda

4: AWS Glue Studio

5: AWS Step Functions

To access an Amazon S3 bucket in another account that is encrypted using SSE-KMS, the following are required:

A. An AWS KMS key policy that allows access to the customer master key (CMK). The CMK is the encryption key that is used to encrypt and decrypt the data in the S3 bucket. The KMS key policy defines who can use and manage the CMK. To allow access to the CMK from another account, the key policy must include a statement that grants the necessary permissions (such as kms:Decrypt) to the principal from the other account (such as the SageMaker notebook IAM role).

B. A SageMaker notebook security group that allows access to Amazon S3. A security group is a virtual firewall that controls the inbound and outbound traffic for the SageMaker notebook instance. To allow the notebook instance to access the S3 bucket, the security group must have a rule that allows outbound traffic to the S3 endpoint on port 443 (HTTPS).

C. An IAM role that allows access to the specific S3 bucket. An IAM role is an identity that can be assumed by the SageMaker notebook instance to access AWS resources. The IAM role must have a policy that grants the necessary permissions (such as s3:GetObject) to access the specific S3 bucket. The policy must also include a condition that allows access to the CMK in the other account.

The following are not required or correct:

D. A permissive S3 bucket policy. A bucket policy is a resource-based policy that defines who can access the S3 bucket and what actions they can perform. A permissive bucket policy is not required and not recommended, as it can expose the bucket to unauthorized access. A bucket policy should follow the principle of least privilege and grant the minimum permissions necessary to the specific principals that need access.

E. An S3 bucket owner that matches the notebook owner. The S3 bucket owner and the notebook owner do not need to match, as long as the bucket owner grants cross-account access to the notebook owner through the KMS key policy and the bucket policy (if applicable).

F. A SegaMaker notebook subnet ACL that allow traffic to Amazon S3. A subnet ACL is a network access control list that acts as an optional layer of security for the SageMaker notebook instance’s subnet. A subnet ACL is not required to access the S3 bucket, as the security group is sufficient to control the traffic. However, if a subnet ACL is used, it must not block the traffic to the S3 endpoint.

The best architecture to scale the solution at the lowest cost is to implement the solution using AWS Deep Learning Containers and run the container as a job using AWS Batch on a GPU-compatible Spot Instance. This option has the following advantages:

AWS Deep Learning Containers: These are Docker images that are pre-installed and optimized with popular deep learning frameworks such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, and MXNet. They can be easily deployed on Amazon EC2, Amazon ECS, Amazon EKS, and AWS Fargate. They can also be integrated with AWS Batch to run containerized batch jobs. Using AWS Deep Learning Containers can simplify the setup and configuration of the deep learning environment and reduce the complexity of the resource management.

AWS Batch: This is a fully managed service that enables you to run batch computing workloads on AWS. You can define compute environments, job queues, and job definitions to run your batch jobs. You can also use AWS Batch to automatically provision compute resources based on the requirements of the batch jobs. You can specify the type and quantity of the compute resources, such as GPU instances, and the maximum price you are willing to pay for them. You can also use AWS Batch to monitor the status and progress of your batch jobs and handle any failures or interruptions.

GPU-compatible Spot Instance: This is an Amazon EC2 instance that uses a spare compute capacity that is available at a lower price than the On-Demand price. You can use Spot Instances to run your deep learning training jobs at a lower cost, as long as you are flexible about when your instances run and how long they run. You can also use Spot Instances with AWS Batch to automatically launch and terminate instances based on the availability and price of the Spot capacity. You can also use Spot Instances with Amazon EBS volumes to store your datasets, checkpoints, and logs, and attach them to your instances when they are launched. This way, you can preserve your data and resume your training even if your instances are interrupted.

AWS Deep Learning Containers

AWS Batch

Amazon EC2 Spot Instances

Using Amazon EBS Volumes with Amazon EC2 Spot Instances